Vegetarianism is the practice of not eating meat.
Vegetarians may consume dairy and egg products; a stricter form is veganism, which excludes dairy, eggs, and any foods that contain these or other animal products..
Meat analogue
A meat analogue (Also called meat substitute or mock meat) is a food product that approximates the aesthetic qualities and/or chemical characteristics of certain types of meat.
Some meat analogues rely on one or more types of flavouring.
The market for meatless foods includes health-conscious non-vegetarians, lactose-intolerant people, persons following rules of Kashrut, or to address ethical and nutritional issues for vegetarians and vegans..
Food groups
The food groups are part of a method of classification for the various foods that humans consume in their everyday lives, based on the nutritional properties of these types of foods and their location in a hierarchy of nutrition.
Eating certain amounts and proportions of foods from the different categories is recommended by most guides to healthy eating as one of the most important ways to achieve a healthy lifestyle through diet.
Different food guides vary in the number of categories used to divide types of food, but the majority of them include the following classifications: grain products; vegetables; fruits; dairy products
Saturated fat
Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids.
Diets high in saturated fat correlate in some studies with an increased incidence of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease..
Dairy product
Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk.
A production plant for such processing is called a dairy.
Raw milk for processing generally comes from cows, but occasionally from other mammals such as goats, sheep, water buffalo, yaks, or horses..

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Sensory neurons are nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism’s environment into internal electrical impulses.
For example, some sensory neurons respond to tactile stimuli and can activate motor neurons in order to achieve muscle contraction.
Such connections between sensory and motor neurons underlie motor reflex loops and several forms of involuntary behavior, including pain avoidance.
In humans, such reflex circuits are commonly located in the spinal cord..
Motor neuron
In vertebrates, motor neurons (also called motoneurons) are efferent neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse with muscle fibers to facilitate muscle contraction and with muscle spindles to modify proprioceptive sensitivity..
Nociceptor
A nociceptor is a sensory receptor that sends signals that cause the perception of pain in response to potentially damaging stimulus.
Nociceptors are the nerve endings responsible for nociception, one of the two types of persistent pain (the other, neuropathic pain, occurs when nerves in the central or peripheral nervous system are damaged)..

Olfaction
Olfaction, the sense of odor (smell), is the detection of chemicals dissolved in air (or in water, by animals that live under water).
In vertebrates smells are sensed by the olfactory epithelium located in the nasal cavity and first processed by the olfactory bulb in the olfactory system..
Neurobiology
Neurobiology is the study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior.
It is a subdiscipline of both biology and neuroscience.
Neurobiology differs from neuroscience, a much broader field that is concerned with any scientific study of the nervous system.
Neurons are cells that are specialized to receive, propagate, and transmit electrochemical impulses.
In the human brain alone, there are over a hundred billion neurons.
Neurons are diverse with respect to morphology and function..

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Natural killer cell
Natural killer cells (also known as NK cells, K cells, and killer cells) are a type of lymphocyte (a white blood cell) and a component of innate immune system.
NK cells play a major role in the host-rejection of both tumours and virally infected cells.
NK cells are cytotoxic; small granules in their cytoplasm contain special proteins such as perforin and proteases known as granzymes.
Upon release in close proximity to a cell slated for killing, perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell through which the granzymes and associated molecules can enter, inducing apoptosis.
The distinction between apoptosis and cell lysis is important in immunology – lysing a virus-infected cell would only release the virions, whereas apoptosis leads to destruction of the virus inside. NK cells are activated in response to interferons or macrophage-derived cytokines.
They serve to contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response is generating antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that can clear the infection.
Patients deficient in NK cells prove to be highly susceptible to early phases of herpes virus infection..
T cell
T cells are a subset of lymphocytes that play a large role in the immune response.
The abbreviation “T” stands for thymus, the organ in which their final stage of development occurs.
Every effective immune response involves T cell activation; however, T cells are especially important in cell-mediated immunity, which is the defense against tumor cells and pathogenic organisms inside body cells..
White blood cell
White blood cells (also called leukocytes or immune cells) are cells which form a component of the blood.
They help to defend the body against infectious disease and foreign materials as part of the immune system.
There are normally between 4×109 and 11×109 white blood cells in a litre of healthy adult blood – about 7,000 to 25,000 white blood cells per drop.
In conditions such as leukaemia this may rise to as many as 50,000 white blood cells in a single drop of blood.
As well as in the blood, white cells are also found in large numbers in the lymphatic system, the spleen, and in other body tissues..
Inflammation
Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation and may be referred to as the innate cascade.
Inflammation is characterised by the following quintet: redness (rubor), heat (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor) and dysfunction of the organs involved (functio laesa).
Inflammation has two main components – cellular and exudative..

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The word infant is commonly used as a slightly more formal word for baby (the youngest category of child).
The term infant is also used as formal/legal term for minor; that is, a child in general.
A newborn infant is known as a neonate (neonatal, neonatus) after the final stage of gestation throughout the first three months.
A human infant which is less than 28 days old is a newborn.
The term can technically also apply to premature infants and postmature infants, as well as full term newborns..

Colostrum

Colostrum (also known as beestings or first milk) is a form of milk produced by the mammary glands in late pregnancy and the few days after giving birth. Human and bovine colostrums are thick, sticky and yellowish.
In humans, it has high concentrations of nutrients and antibodies, but it is small in quantity. Colostrum is high in carbohydrates, high in protein, high in antibodies, and low in fat (as human newborns may find fat difficult to digest).
Newborns have very small digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form.
It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby’s first stool, which is called meconium.
This clears excess bilirubin, a waste product of dead red blood cells which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction, from the infant’s body and helps prevent jaundice. Colostrum contains large numbers of antibodies called “secretory immunoglobulin” (IgA) that help protect the mucous membranes in the throat, lungs, and intestines of the infant.
Leukocytes are also present in large numbers; these begin protecting the infant from harmful viruses and bacteria.
Ingesting colostrum establishes beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract. Premature babies tend to fare better on human colostrum than commercial infant formulas.
Human milk contains special components, called growth modulators, that help the premature baby’s digestive system adjust to oral feedings.
Research indicates that premature babies fed formula tend to vomit more and continue tube feeding longer than those fed human colostrum and breast milk..

Maternal bond

The maternal bond is typically the relationship between a mother and her child.
While it typically occurs due to pregnancy and childbirth, it may also occur between a woman and an unrelated child, such as in adoption.
There are hundreds of factors, physical and emotional, which influence the mother-infant bonding process.
Lots of new mothers do not always experience the “instantly-in-mother-love” emotions.
Bonding is a gradually unfolding experience that can take hours, days, weeks or months to evolve.
Many believe that early bonding ideally increases response and sensitivity to the child’s needs, bolstering the quality of the mother-baby relationship..

Premature birth

Premature birth (also known as preterm birth) is defined medically as childbirth occurring earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation.
Most pregnancies last about 40 weeks.
About 12 percent of babies in the United States – or 1 in 8 – are born prematurely each year.
In 2003, more than 490,000 babies in the U.S.
were born prematurely.
Premature babies are sometimes called preemies.
The shorter the term of pregnancy is, the greater the risks of complications.
Infants born prematurely have an increased risk of death in the first year of life; prematurity itself is the leading cause of newborn death within one month of birth at 25%.
They are also at a greater risk for developing serious health problems such as: cerebral palsy, chronic lung disease, gastrointestinal problems, mental retardation, vision and hearing loss..

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Interventional Radiology (IR) is a subspecialty of Medical imaging (Radiology) in which minimally invasive procedures are performed using image guidance.
Some of these procedures are done for purely diagnostic purposes (e.g., angiograms), while others are done for treatment purposes (e.g., angioplasties).
Pictures (images) are used to direct these procedures, which are usually done with needles or other tiny instruments like small tubes called catheters..
Minimally invasive procedure
A minimally invasive medical procedure is defined as one that is carried out by entering the body through the skin or through a body cavity or anatomical opening, but with the smallest damage possible to these structures.
Many medical procedures are considered minimally invasive..
Uterine fibroids
Uterine fibroids (leiomyomata, singular leiomyoma) are the most common neoplasm in females, and may affect about 25 % of white and 50% of black women during the reproductive years.
Fibroids may be removed simply by means of a hysterectomy, but much more favourably by a myomectomy or by uterine artery embolization, which preserve the uterus.
Fibroids, particularly when small, may be entirely asymptomatic.
Generally, symptoms relate to the location of the lesion and its size.
Important symptoms include abnormal gynecologic hemorrhage, pain, urinary frequency or retention, and in some cases, infertility.
During pregnancy they may be the cause of miscarriage, bleeding, premature labor, or interference with the position of the fetus.
Very few lesions are or become malignant.
Signs that a fibroid may be malignant are rapid growth or growth after menopause..

Echocardiography
The echocardiogram is an ultrasound of the heart.
Using standard ultrasound techniques, two-dimensional slices of the heart can be imaged.
The latest ultrasound systems now employ 3D real-time imaging..

Bone scan
Bone imaging is a study to visually detect bone abnormalities.
Such imaging studies include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray computed tomography (CT) and especially nuclear medicine.
In the latter case the patient is injected with a small amount of radioactive material such as 600 MBq of technetium-99m-MDP and then scanned with a Gamma camera, a device sensitive to the radiation emitted by the injected material. About half of the radioactive material is localized by the bones.
The more active the bone turnover, the more radioactive material will be seen.
Some tumors, fractures and infections show up as areas of increased uptake.
Others can cause decreased uptake of radioactive material. About half of the radioactive material leaves the body through the kidneys and bladder in urine. The period from injection to completion can last over 4 hours.
Actual images are taken for about 30 to 70 minutes.
Sometimes late images are taken at 24 hours after injection. Pregnant patients should consult with a physician before consenting to radioactive injections..

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Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms.
of each dietary mineral must be sustained to maintain physical health..
Micronutrient
Micronutrients are essential elements needed by life in small quantities.
They include microminerals and Vitamins. Microminerals or trace elements include at least iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc, and molybdenum.
They are dietary minerals needed by the human body in very small quantities (generally less than 100mg/day) as opposed to macrominerals which are required in larger quantities.
Note that the use of the term “mineral” here is distinct from the usage in the geological sciences.
Vitamins are organic chemicals that a given living organism requires in trace quantities for good health, but which the organism cannot synthesize, and therefore must obtain from its diet..
Essential nutrient
An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal body functioning that can not be synthesized by the body.
Categories of essential nutrient include vitamins, dietary minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.
Many essential vitamins, such as Vitamin C, are also by definition phytonutrients, as they occur in plants.
Different species have very different essential nutrients.
Most essential nutrients are substances that are metabolically necessary but cannot be synthesized by the organism.
Some essential nutrients may be toxic in large doses..

Fertilizer
Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves.
Fertilizers can be organic (composed of organic matter, i.e.
carbon based), or inorganic (containing simple, inorganic chemicals)..
Nutrition and pregnancy
Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertook before, during and after pregnancy.
Not only have physical disorders been linked with ill-nutrition before and during pregnancy, but neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are ill-nourished, a condition which can also lead to the child becoming more susceptible to later degenerative disease(s)..

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Fertilizer
Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves.
Fertilizers can be organic (composed of organic matter, i.e.
carbon based), or inorganic (containing simple, inorganic chemicals)..
Nutrition and pregnancy
Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertook before, during and after pregnancy.
Not only have physical disorders been linked with ill-nutrition before and during pregnancy, but neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are ill-nourished, a condition which can also lead to the child becoming more susceptible to later degenerative disease(s)..

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Chronic pain was originally defined as pain that has lasted 6 months or longer.
It is now defined as pain that persists longer than the normal course of time associated with a particular type of injury.
Chronic pain is essentially caused by the bombardment of the central nervous system (CNS) with nociceptive impulses, which causes changes in the neural response.
The pain subsequently provokes changes in the behavior of the patient, and the development of fear-avoidance strategies.
As a result, the patient may also become physically atrophied and deconditioned.
However, it is important to remember that chronic pain is multifactorial, with the underlying biological changes affecting physical and psychosocial factors..
Fatigue (physical)
Fatigue is a state, following a period of mental or physical activity, characterized by a lessened capacity for work and reduced efficiency of accomplishment, usually accompanied by a feeling of weariness, sleepiness, or irritability..
Laryngitis
Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx.
It causes hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of irritation to the vocal folds (vocal cords)..
Multi-infarct dementia
Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..
Cluster headache
Cluster headaches are rare, extremely painful and debilitating headaches that occur in groups or clusters.
Cluster headache sufferers typically experience severe headaches of a piercing quality near one eye or temple that last for fifteen minutes to three hours.
The headaches are usually unilateral and occasionally change sides.
Cluster headaches are classified as vascular headaches.
The intense pain is caused by the dilation of blood vessels which creates pressure on the trigeminal nerve.
While this process is the immediate cause of the pain, the etiology (underlying cause or causes) is not fully understood.
Cluster headaches often go undiagnosed for many years, being confused with migraine or other causes of headache..

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Currently, much of medical practice is based on “standards of care” that are determined by averaging responses across large cohorts.
The theory has been that everyone should get the same care based on clinical trials.
Personalized Medicine is the concept that managing a patient’s health should be based on the individual patient’s specific characteristics, including age, gender, height/weight, diet, environment, etc. Potential applications of personalized medicine Personalized medicine aims to identify individuals at risk for common diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.
The simple family history has long been used by physicians to identify individuals at increased risk and to advise preventive measures such as lifestyle modifications (changes in diet, cessation of toxic habits, increased exercise) earlier screening, or even prophylactic medications or surgery.
Scientific advancements offer the potential to define an individual’s risk based on their genetic make-up.
Fields of Translational Research termed “-omics” (genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) study the contribution of genes, proteins, and metabolic pathways to human physiology and variations of these pathways that can lead to disease susceptibility.
It is hoped that these fields will enable new approaches to diagnosis, drug development, and individualized therapy. Pharmacogenetics Pharmacogenetics (also termed pharmacogenomics) is the field of study that examines the impact of genetic variation on the response to medications.
This approach is aimed at tailoring drug therapy at a dosage that is most appropriate for an individual patient, with the potential benefits of increasing the efficacy and safety of medications.
Gene-centered research may also speed the development of novel therapeutics..
Palliative care
Palliative care is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the severity of the symptoms of a disease or slows its progress rather than providing a cure.
It aims at improving quality of life, by reducing or eliminating pain and other physical symptoms, enabling the patient to ease or resolve psychological and spiritual problems, and supporting the partner and family..

Sports medicine
Sports medicine or sport medicine is an interdisciplinary subspecialty of medicine which deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, both amateur and professional.
The sports medicine “team:” includes specialty physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches, other personnel, and, of course, the athlete.
Sports medicine has always been difficult to define because it is not a single specialty, but an area that involves health care professionals, researchers and educators from a wide variety of disciplines.
Its function is not only curative and rehabilitative, but also preventative, which may actually be the most important one of all..
Human biology
Human biology is an academic field of biology which focuses on humans; it is closely related to medicine, primate biology, and a number of other fields.
A human being is a multicellular eukaryote consisting of an estimated 100 trillion cells.
It should be noted that there is no consensus on the actual number of cells in the human body; estimates vary widely.
As a species, humans are primates and can be distinguished from other primates by their more highly evolved brains.
Even though humans are multicellular animals, many of the basic life processes of human cells are basically the same as in simple unicellular eukaryotes such as yeast and even prokaryotes..
Physical therapy
Physical therapy (also known as physiotherapy) is an allied health profession concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of disease and disability through physical means.
Physiotherapy is practiced by physiotherapists (also known as physical therapists, e.g.
in the United States), though aspects may also be practiced under supervised delegation by physiotherapy assistants or other health professionals..

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The disease involves a progressive disorder of the extrapyramidal system, which controls and adjusts communication between neurons in the brain and muscles in the human body.
It also commonly involves depression and disturbances of sensory systems..
Restless legs syndrome
Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a poorly understood and often misdiagnosed neurological disorder.
RLS (which is also sometimes referred to as Jimmy Legs, spare legs or “the kicks”) may be described as uncontrollable urges to move the limbs in order to stop uncomfortable, painful or odd sensations in the body, most commonly in the legs.
Moving the affected body part eliminates the sensation, providing temporary relief.
The sensations and need to move may return immediately after ceasing movement, or at a later time.
RLS may start at any age, including early childhood, and is a progressive disease for a certain percentage of sufferers, although it has been known for the symptoms to disappear permanently in some sufferers..

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Liver transplantation is the replacement of a diseased liver with a healthy liver allograft.
The most commonly used technique is orthotopic transplantation, in which the native liver is removed and the donor organ is placed in the same anatomic location as the original liver..

Encephalopathy

Encephalopathy is a nonspecific term describing a syndrome affecting the brain.
Generally, it refers to involvement of large parts of the brain (or the whole organ), instead of identifiable changes confined to parts of the brain.
Encephalopathy may refer to the clinical findings: altered mental state without focal findings; or, more generally, it may refer to the pathophysiology that causes these findings..

Hepatitis

Hepatitis is a gastroenterological disease, featuring inflammation of the liver.
The clinical signs and prognosis, as well as the therapy, depend on the cause..

Detox

Detox, short for detoxification, in general is the removal of toxic substances from the body.

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Ulcer
An ulcer is an open sore of the skin, eyes or mucous membrane, often caused, but not exclusively, by an initial abrasion and generally maintained by an inflammation, an infection, and/or medical conditions which impede healing.
Or in other words, it is a macroscopic discontinuity of the normal epithelium (microscopic discontinuity of epithelium is called erosion).
Other causes of skin ulcerations include pressure from various sources and venous insufficiency..
Stomach cancer
Stomach cancer (also called gastric cancer) can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus and the small intestine.
It may also spread, through the stomach wall, to nearby lymph nodes and organs such as the liver, pancreas, and the lungs, or to distant organs such as the lymph nodes above the collar bone, the colon, and the ovaries.
Metastasis (the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body) to the ovaries can result in Krukenberg tumors.
Stomach cancer represents roughly 2% (21,500) cases of all new cancer cases yearly in the United States, but it is much more common in Japan, Great Britain, South America, and Iceland.
It is associated with high salt in the diet, smoking, and low intake of fruits and vegetables.
Infection with H.
pylori is the main risk factor in about 80% or more of gastric cancers.
It is more common in men..
Gallstone
In medicine, gallstones (choleliths) are crystalline bodies formed within the body by accretion or concretion of normal or abnormal bile components.
Gallstones can occur anywhere within the biliary tree, including the gallbladder and the common bile duct..
Stomach
In anatomy, the stomach is an organ in the gastrointestinal tract used to digest food.
In general, the stomach’s primary function is not the absorption of nutrients from digested food; this task is usually performed by the intestine.
In most animals, the main job of the stomach is to break down large food molecules into smaller ones, so that they can be absorbed into the blood more easily.
Latin names for the stomach include Ventriculus and Gaster; many medical terms related to the stomach start in “gastro-” or “gastric”..

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COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an umbrella term for a group of respiratory tract diseases that are characterized by airflow obstruction or limitation.
The most common cause is tobacco smoking, but COPD can also be caused by exposure to other airway irritants like coal dust or solvents.
In some cases there are no known causes (idiopathic COPD) or the disease may arise due to congenital defects.
COPD is a progressive disease.
Obstructive changes in spirometry and decreases in diffusion capacity are typically seen before symptoms occur.
Early signs and symptoms are shortness of breath on exertion, recurrent respiratory infections or a morning cough..
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an obstructive pulmonary disease characterized by inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs.
Bronchitis can be acute (short-term), or chronic (long-lasting).
Chronic bronchitis is defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum for at least three months in two consecutive years..

Pulmonary alveolus
An alveolus (plural: alveoli), is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity.
In the lung, the pulmonary alveoli are spherical outcroppings of the respiratory bronchioles and are the primary sites of gas exchange with the blood.
Alveoli are peculiar to mammalian lungs; different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates.

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Excretory system
The excretory system is the system of an organism’s body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process of discharging wastes.
The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
There are several parts of the body that are involved in this process, such as sweat glands, the liver, the lungs and the kidney system.
Every human has two kidneys.
Each kidney is made up of three sections: the renal cortex, the renal medulla and the renal pelvis.
The blood arrives at the kidney via the renal artery, which splits into many afferent arterioles.
These arterioles go to the Bowman’s Capsules of nephrons, where the wastes are taken out of the blood by pressure filtration.
Peritubular capillaries also surround the nephron so substances can be taken in and out of the blood.
The renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidney and the medulla is the inner layer of the kidney.
The renal pelvis takes urine away from the kidney via the ureter.
Both of the ureters lead the urine into the body’s only urinary bladder, which expands and sends nerve impulses when full.
From there, urine is expelled through the urethra and out of the body..

Kidney transplantation
Kidney transplantation or renal transplantation is the organ transplant of a kidney in a patient with end-stage renal failure..
Inflammation of the kidney
Nephritis is inflammation of the kidney.
The two most common causes of nephritis are infection or an auto-immune process.
Nephritis has the effect of damaging and closing up the microscopic filters in the kidney.
This means that in addition to various toxic waste products, the inflamed kidney filters out important proteins (larger molecules) from the blood.
Therefore the characteristic symptom of nephritis is proteinuria – meaning the excessive removal of protein from the blood and its excretion in urine..

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Tension headaches, which were recently renamed tension type headaches by the International Headache Society, are the most common type of headaches.
The pain can radiate from the neck, back, eyes, or other muscle groups in the body.
Nearly everyone will have at least one tension headache in their lifetime..
Cluster headache
Cluster headaches are rare, extremely painful and debilitating headaches that occur in groups or clusters.
Cluster headache sufferers typically experience severe headaches of a piercing quality near one eye or temple that last for fifteen minutes to three hours.
The headaches are usually unilateral and occasionally change sides.
Cluster headaches are classified as vascular headaches.
The intense pain is caused by the dilation of blood vessels which creates pressure on the trigeminal nerve.
While this process is the immediate cause of the pain, the etiology (underlying cause or causes) is not fully understood.
Cluster headaches often go undiagnosed for many years, being confused with migraine or other causes of headache..
Headache
A headache (cephalgia in medical terminology) is a condition of pain in the head; sometimes neck or upper back pain may also be interpreted as a headache.
It ranks amongst the most common local pain complaints. The vast majority of headaches are benign and self-limiting.
Common causes are tension, migraine, eye strain, dehydration, low blood sugar, and sinusitis.
Much rarer are headaches due to life-threatening conditions such as meningitis, encephalitis, cerebral aneurysms, extremely high blood pressure, and brain tumors.
When the headache occurs in conjunction with a head injury the cause is usually quite evident.
A large percentage of headaches among females are caused by ever-fluctuating estrogen during menstrual years.
This can occur prior to, during or even midcycle menstruation. Treatment of uncomplicated headache is usually symptomatic with over-the-counter painkillers such as aspirin, paracetamol (acetaminophen), or ibuprofen, although some specific forms of headaches (e.g., migraines) may demand other, more suitable treatment.
It may be possible to relate the occurrence of a headache to other particular triggers (such as stress or particular foods), which can then be avoided. While, statistically, headaches are most likely to be harmless and self-limiting, some specific headache syndromes may demand specific treatment or may be warning signals of more serious disorders.
Some headache subtypes are characterized by a specific pattern of symptoms, and no further testing may be necessary, while others may prompt further diagnostic tests. Headache associated with specific symptoms may warrant urgent medical attention, particularly sudden, severe headache or sudden headache associated with a stiff neck; headaches associated with fever, convulsions or accompanied by confusion or loss of consciousness; headaches following a blow to the head, or associated with pain in the eye or ear; persistent headache in a person with no previous history of headaches; and recurring headache in children. The most important step in diagnosing a headache is for the physician to take a careful history and to examine the patient.
In the majority of cases the diagnosis will be tension headache or migraine, both of which can be managed on the basis of a clear-cut clinical picture.
Where doubt remains, or if there are abnormalities detected on examination, further investigations are justified.
Computed tomography (CT/CAT) scans of the brain or sinuses are commonly performed, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in specific settings.
Blood tests may help narrow down the differential diagnosis, but are rarely confirmatory of specific headache forms..
Back pain
Back pain (also known as “dorsopathy”) is pain felt in the human back that may come from the spine, muscles, nerves, or other structures in the back.
It may radiate from the lower, mid or upper back.
The pain may be a tingling or burning sensation, a dull aching, or sharp pain.
Weakness may also be felt in the legs or feet..
Lavender oil
Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender.
Two forms are distinguished, Lavender Flower Oil, a colorless oil, insoluble in water, having a density of 0.885 (g/mL); and Lavender Spike Oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula latifolia, having density 0.905.
Lavender Flower Oil is a designation of the National Formulary and the British Pharmacopoeia.
It is not a pure compound; it is a complex mixture of natural products.
Lavender oil should never be taken internally.
Lavender oil, which has long been used in the production of perfume, can also be used in aromatherapy.
Lavender oil has recently been implicated in gynecomastia, the abnormal development of breasts in young boys..

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Sexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction is difficulty during any stage of the sexual act..Transmission (medicine) In medicine, transmission is the passing of a disease from an infected individual or group to a previously uninfected individual or group.
In order to survive, microorganisms that require human hosts must have a

way to be transmitted from one host to another.
Infectious agents are generally specialised for a particular method of

transmission.
Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary

perspective a virus or bacteria that causes its host to develop coughing and

sneezing symptoms has a great survival advantage – it is much more likely

to be ejected from one host and carried to another.
This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.
Microorganisms vary widely in the length of time that they can survive

outside the human body, and so vary in how they are transmitted..

Amnesia

Amnesia (or amnaesia in Commonwealth English) is a condition in which

memory is disturbed.
The causes of amnesia are organic or functional.
Organic causes include damage to the brain, through trauma or disease, or

use of certain (generally sedative) drugs.
Functional causes are psychological factors, such as defense

mechanisms..

Urology

Urology is the field of medicine that focuses on the urinary tracts of males

and females, and on the reproductive system of males.
In men, the urinary system overlaps with the reproductive system, and in

women the urinary tract opens into the vulva..

Orgasm

An orgasm also known as a sexual climax, is a pleasurable physical,

psychological or emotional response to prolonged sexual stimulation..

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Nephritis is inflammation of the kidney.
The two most common causes of nephritis are infection or an auto-immune process.
Nephritis has the effect of damaging and closing up the microscopic filters in the kidney.
This means that in addition to various toxic waste products, the inflamed kidney filters out important proteins (larger molecules) from the blood.
Therefore the characteristic symptom of nephritis is proteinuria – meaning the excessive removal of protein from the blood and its excretion in urine..

Arthritis

Arthritis is a group of conditions that affect the health of the bone joints in the body.
One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the disease affects about twice as many women as men.Arthritic diseases include rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune diseases; septic arthritis, caused by joint infection; and the more common osteoarthritis, or degenerative joint disease..

Lyme disease

Lyme disease or Lyme borreliosis is an infectious tick-borne disease, caused by the Borrelia spirochete, a gram-negative microorganism.
Lyme disease is named after a cluster of cases that occurred in and around Old Lyme and Lyme, Connecticut in 1975.
Before 1975, elements of Borrelia infection were also known as “tick-borne meningopolyneuritis”, Garin-Bujadoux syndrome, Bannwarth syndrome or sheep tick fever.
It is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected ticks..

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack the joints.
It is a disabling and painful inflammatory condition, which can lead to substantial loss of mobility due to pain and joint destruction.

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Circadian rhythm sleep disorders are a family of sleep disorders affecting the timing of sleep.
People with circadian rhythm sleep disorders are unable to sleep and wake at the times required for normal work, school, and social needs.
They are generally able to get enough sleep if allowed to sleep and wake at the times dictated by their body clocks.
Unless they have another sleep disorder, their sleep is of normal quality.
Humans have biological rhythms, known as circadian rhythms, which are controlled by a biological clock and work on a daily time scale.
Due to the circadian clock, sleepiness does not continuously increase as time passes.
Instead, the drive for sleep follows a cycle, and the body is ready for sleep and for wakefulness at different times of the day..

Circadian rhythm

A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including plants, animals, fungi and cyanobacteria. In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as sunlight and temperature.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings.
There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle..

Insomnia

Insomnia is characterized by an inability to sleep and/or to be incapable of remaining asleep for a reasonable period.
Insomniacs typically complain of being unable to close their eyes or “rest their mind” for more than a few minutes at a time.
Both organic and nonorganic insomnia constitute a sleep disorder.
It is often caused by fear, stress, anxiety, medications, herbs or even caffeine.
An overactive mind or physical pain may also be causes.
Finding the underlying cause of insomnia is usually necessary to cure it..

Sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation is an overall lack of the necessary amount of sleep.
A person can be deprived of sleep by their own body and mind, insomnia, or actively deprived by another individual.
Sleep deprivation afflicts 47 million adults in the United States..

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Seizures are temporary abnormal electro-physiologic phenomena of the
brain, resulting in abnormal synchronization of electrical neuronal activity.They can manifest as an alteration in mental state, tonic or clonic movements, convulsions, and various other psychic symptoms (such as déja vu or jamais vu).
They are due to temporary abnormal electrical activity of a group of brain

cells.
The medical syndrome of recurrent, unprovoked seizures is termed

epilepsy, but some seizures may occur in people who do not have

epilepsy.
The treatment of epilepsy is a subspecialty of neurology; the study of

seizures is part of neuroscience.
Seizures can cause involuntary changes in body movement or function,

sensation, awareness, or behavior.
A seizure can last from a few seconds to status epilepticus, a continuous

seizure that will not stop without intervention.
Seizure is often associated with a sudden and involuntary contraction of a

group of muscles.
However, a seizure can also be as subtle as marching numbness of a part

of body, a brief loss of memory, sparkling of flashes, sensing an unpleasant

odor, a strange epigastric sensation or a sensation of fear.
Therefore seizures are typically classified as motor, sensory, autonomic,

emotional or cognitive.
In some cases, the full onset of a seizure event is preceded by some of the

sensations described above..

Encephalopathy

Encephalopathy is a nonspecific term describing a syndrome affecting the

brain.
Generally, it refers to involvement of large parts of the brain (or the whole

organ), instead of identifiable changes confined to parts of the brain.
Encephalopathy may refer to the clinical findings: altered mental state

without focal findings; or, more generally, it may refer to the

pathophysiology that causes these findings..

Epilepsy

Epilepsy (sometimes referred to as a seizure disorder) is a common

chronic neurological condition that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked

epileptic seizures.
These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal

excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
It affects approximately 50 million people worldwide.
Epilepsy is usually controlled, but not cured, with medication – although

surgery may be considered in difficult cases.
Not all epilepsy syndromes are lifelong, for example some are confined to

particular stages of childhood.
Epilepsy is usually treated with medication prescribed by a physician;

primary caregivers, neurologists, and neurosurgeons all frequently care for

people with epilepsy.
In some cases the implantation of a stimulator of the vagus nerve, or a

special diet can be helpful.
Neurosurgical operations for epilepsy can be palliative, reducing the

frequency or severity of seizures; or, in some patients, an operation can be

curative..

Anticonvulsant

The anticonvulsants, sometimes also called antiepileptics, belong to a

diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in prevention of the occurrence of

epileptic seizures.
The goal of an anticonvulsant is to suppress the rapid and excessive firing

of neurons that start a seizure.
Failing this, a good anticonvulsant would prevent the spread of the seizure

within the brain and offer protection against possible excitotoxic effects that

may result in brain damage.
An excellent anticonvulsant would have few serious side effects.
However, no such drug exists. Many anticonvulsants block Sodium (Na+)

channels, Calcium (Ca2+) channels, AMPA receptors or NMDA receptors.
Some anticonvulsants inhibit the metabolism of GABA or increase its

release..

Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome (or Rett’s disorder) is a progressive neurological disorder

that is classified as a pervasive developmental disorder by the DSM-IV.
The symptoms of this disorder are easily confused with those of cerebral

palsy.
The clinical diagnosis specifies a small head and small hands and feet.
Stereotypical repetitive hand movements such as mouthing or wringing of

the hands are also included as diagnostic signs.
Symptoms of the disease include learning disorders and a total inability to

socialize.
Girls with Rett syndrome are very prone to seizures and gastrointestinal

disorders.
They typically have no verbal skills, and about 50% of females are

ambulatory.
Rett syndrome (symbolized RTT) is X-linked dominant, affecting almost

exclusively girls.
Development is normal until 6-18 months, when language and motor

milestones regress, purposeful hand use is lost and acquired microcephaly

is seen.
Hand-wringing and sighing are characteristic, and those affected develop

autistic behavior..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

In medicine, transmission is the passing of a disease from an infected individual or group to a previously uninfected individual or group.
In order to survive, microorganisms that require human hosts must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another.
Infectious agents are generally specialised for a particular method of transmission.
Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective a virus or bacteria that causes its host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms has a great survival advantage – it is much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another.
This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.
Microorganisms vary widely in the length of time that they can survive outside the human body, and so vary in how they are transmitted..

Pathogen

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.
The term is most often used for agents that disrupt the normal physiology of a multicellular animal or plant.
However, pathogens can infect unicellular organisms from all of the biological kingdoms.
There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host.
The human body contains many natural defenses against some of common pathogens in the form of the human immune system and by some “helpful” bacteria present in the human body’s normal flora.
Some pathogens have been found to be responsible for massive amounts of casualties and have had numerous effects on afflicted groups.
Today, while many medical advances have been made to safeguard against infection by pathogens, through the use of vaccination, antibiotics and fungicide, pathogens continue to threaten human life.
Social advances such as food safety, hygiene, and water treatment have reduced the threat from some pathogens..

Infectious disease

In medicine, infectious disease or communicable disease is disease caused by a biological agent such as by a virus, bacterium or parasite.
This is contrasted to physical causes, such as burns or chemical ones such as through intoxication..

Sexually transmitted disease

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) also known as sexually transmissible diseases, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or (infrequently) venereal diseases (VD), are diseases or infections that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of sexual contact.
Depending on the STD, a person may or may not still be able to spread the infection if no signs of disease are present.
For example, a person is much more likely to spread herpes infection when blisters are present (STD) than when they are absent (STI).
However, a person can spread HIV infection (STI) at any time, even if he/she has not developed symptoms of AIDS (STD). All sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person should be considered to contain some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases..

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An eating disorder is a compulsion in which the main problem is a person eats in a way which disturbs their physical health. The eating may be too excessive (compulsive over-eating), too limited (restricting), may include normal eating punctuated with episodes of purging, may include cycles of binging and purging, or may encompass the ingesting of non-foods.
The best-known eating disorders are Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa,

and Pica..

Bulimia nervosa

Bulimia nervosa, more commonly known as bulimia, is an eating disorder.
It is a psychological condition in which the subject engages in recurrent

binge eating followed by intentionally doing one or more of the following in

order to compensate for the intake of the food and prevent weight gain:

vomiting, inappropriate use of laxatives, enemas, diuretics or other

medication or excessive exercising..

ppetite

The appetite is the desire to eat food, felt as hunger.
Appetite is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract,

adipose tissue and the brain.
Decreased desire to eat is termed anorexia, while polyphagia (or

“hyperphagia”) is increased eating.
Disregulation of appetite contributes to anorexia nervosa and cachexia, or

oppositely, overeating..

Anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by voluntary starvation

and exercise stress.
Anorexia nervosa is a complex disease, involving psychological,

sociological and physiological components.
A person who is suffering from anorexia is referred to as ‘anorexic’ or (less

commonly) ‘anorectic’.
“Anorectic” is the noun form, where “anorexic” is the adjectival form..

Hyperglycemia

Hyperglycemia or High Blood Sugar is a condition in which an excessive

amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.
Hyperglycemia is one of the classic symptoms of diabetes mellitus, others

including frequent and excessive thirst accompanied by frequent and

excessive urination.
But hyperglycemia is not exclusive to diabetes mellitus, and can often

occur independently in the context of many other medical conditions..

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Hypertension or high blood pressure is a medical condition wherein the blood pressure is chronically elevated.
While it is formally called arterial hypertension, the word “hypertension” without a qualifier usually refers to arterial hypertension..

Blood pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels.
Unless indicated otherwise, blood pressure is understood to mean arterial blood pressure, i.e., the pressure in the large arteries, such as the brachial artery (in the arm).
The pressure of the blood in other vessels is lower than the arterial pressure..

Tinnitus

Tinnitus is a phenomenon of the nervous system connected to the ear, characterised by perception of a ringing or beating sound (often perceived as sinusoidal) with no external source.
This sound may be a quiet background noise, or loud enough to drown out all outside sounds.
It is sometimes refered to as “the club disease” as many people get temporary tinnitus at loud clubs or concerts..

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Diabetes mellitus type 2 (formerly called diabetes mellitus type II, non-insulin-dependent diabetes, NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes) is a long-term metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia..

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Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth.It has direct links with the gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated during the pregnancy by measuring fundal height..

Artificial insemination

Artificial insemination (AI) is when sperm is placed into a female’s ovarian

follicle (intrafollicular), uterus (intrauterine), cervix (intracervical), or fallopian

tubes (intratubal) using artificial means rather than by natural copulation..

Stillbirth

A stillbirth occurs when a fetus, of mid-second trimester to full term

gestational age, which has died in the womb or during labour or delivery,

exits the maternal body..

Premature birth

Premature birth (also known as preterm birth) is defined medically as

childbirth occurring earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation.
Most pregnancies last about 40 weeks.
About 12 percent of babies in the United States – or 1 in 8 – are born

prematurely each year.
In 2003, more than 490,000 babies in the U.S.
were born prematurely.
Premature babies are sometimes called preemies.
The shorter the term of pregnancy is, the greater the risks of complications.
Infants born prematurely have an increased risk of death in the first year of

life; prematurity itself is the leading cause of newborn death within one

month of birth at 25%.
They are also at a greater risk for developing serious health problems such

as: cerebral palsy, chronic lung disease, gastrointestinal problems, mental

retardation, vision and hearing loss..

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more embryos or fetuses by female

mammals, including humans, inside their bodies.
In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations (for example, in the case

of twins, or triplets).
Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies.

Human pregnancy lasts approximately 9 months between the time of the

last menstrual cycle and childbirth (38 weeks from fertilisation).
A pregnancy is considered to have reached term between 37 and 43 weeks

from the beginning of the last menstruation.
Babies born before the 37 week mark are considered premature, while

babies born after the 43 week mark are considered post-mature..

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The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones that circulate within the body via the bloodstream to affect distant organs.
Hormones act as “messengers”, and are carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on them..

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea that sits in the small, bony cavity at the base of the brain.
The anterior pituitary secretes growth hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, endorphins and other hormones..

Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis) comprises the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system.
Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary produces and secretes several peptide hormones that regulate many physiological processes including stress, growth, and reproduction..

Hormone

A hormone is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another.
All multicellular organisms produce hormones including plants.
The best-known animal (and human) hormones are those produced by endocrine glands of vertebrate animals, but hormones are produced by nearly every organ system and tissue type in a human or animal body..

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General anxiety disorder or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is an
anxiety disorder that is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable
worry about everyday things.The frequency, intensity, and duration of the worry are disproportionate to the actual source of worry, and such worry often interferes with daily functioning..

Autistic spectrum

The autistic spectrum (sometimes referred to as the autism spectrum) is a

developmental and behavioral syndrome that results from certain

combinations of characteristically autistic traits.
Although these traits may be normally distributed in the population, some

individuals inherit or otherwise manifest more autistic traits.
At the severe end of the spectrum is low-functioning autism which has

profound impairments in many areas, to Asperger’s syndrome and

high-functioning autism, to “normal” behaviour and perhaps

hypersocialization on the high end of the spectrum..

Rash

A rash is a change in the skin which affects its appearance or texture.
A rash may be localised to one part of the body, or affect all the skin.
Rashes may cause the skin to change color, itch, become warm, bumpy,

dry, cracked or blistered, swell and may be painful..

Neurology

Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous

system.
Physicians specializing in the field of neurology are called neurologists and

are trained to diagnose, treat, and manage patients with neurological

disorders.
Most neurologists are trained to treat and diagnose adults.
Pediatric neurologists, nearly always a subspecialty of pediatrics, treat

neurological disease in children.
Neurologists are also involved in clinical research, clinical trials, as well as

basic research and translational research.
Neurological disorders are disorders that affect the central nervous system

(brain, brainstem and cerebellum), the peripheral nervous system

(peripheral nerves – cranial nerves included), or the autonomic nervous

system (parts of which are located in both central and peripheral nervous

system).
Neurologists also diagnose and treat some conditions in the

musculoskeletal system..

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Encephalitis

Encephalitis is an acute inflammation of the brain, commonly caused by a viral infection.
Sometimes, encephalitis can result from a bacterial infection, such as bacterial meningitis, or it may be a complication of other infectious diseases like rabies (viral) or syphilis (bacterial)..

Pathogen

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.
The term is most often used for agents that disrupt the normal physiology of a multicellular animal or plant.
However, pathogens can infect unicellular organisms from all of the biological kingdoms.
There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host.
The human body contains many natural defenses against some of common pathogens in the form of the human immune system and by some “helpful” bacteria present in the human body’s normal flora.
Some pathogens have been found to be responsible for massive amounts of casualties and have had numerous effects on afflicted groups.
Today, while many medical advances have been made to safeguard against infection by pathogens, through the use of vaccination, antibiotics and fungicide, pathogens continue to threaten human life.
Social advances such as food safety, hygiene, and water treatment have reduced the threat from some pathogens..

Sexually transmitted disease

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) also known as sexually transmissible diseases, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or (infrequently) venereal diseases (VD), are diseases or infections that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of sexual contact.
Depending on the STD, a person may or may not still be able to spread the infection if no signs of disease are present.
For example, a person is much more likely to spread herpes infection when blisters are present (STD) than when they are absent (STI).
However, a person can spread HIV infection (STI) at any time, even if he/she has not developed symptoms of AIDS (STD). All sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person should be considered to contain some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The diet frequently recommended for people who suffer from diabetes
mellitus is one that is high in dietary fibre, especially soluble fibre, but low in fat (especially saturated fat) and sugar.
Patients may be encouraged to reduce their intake of carbohydrates that have a high glycemic index.
However, in cases of hypoglycemia, they are advised to have food or drink

that can raise blood glucose quickly, followed by a long-acting

carbohydrate (such as rye bread) to prevent risk of further hypoglycaemia.
For people with diabetes, healthy eating is not simply a matter of “what one

eats”, but also when one eats..

Hyperglycemia

Hyperglycemia or High Blood Sugar is a condition in which an excessive

amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.
Hyperglycemia is one of the classic symptoms of diabetes mellitus, others

including frequent and excessive thirst accompanied by frequent and

excessive urination.
But hyperglycemia is not exclusive to diabetes mellitus, and can often

occur independently in the context of many other medical conditions..

Blood sugar

In medicine, blood sugar is a term used to refer to levels of glucose in the

blood.
Blood sugar concentration, or serum glucose level, is tightly regulated in

the human body.
Glucose, transported via the bloodstream, is the primary source of energy

for the body’s cells..

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Diabetes mellitus type 2 (formerly called diabetes mellitus type II,

non-insulin-dependent diabetes, NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes) is a

long-term metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin

resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia..

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are three chemicals that are produced as by-products when

fatty acids are broken down for energy.
Contrary to what the name “bodies” may suggest, these are soluble

compounds, not particles.
Any production of these compounds is called ketogenesis, and this is

necessary in small amounts.
But, when excess ketone bodies accumulate, this abnormal (but not

necessarily harmful) state is called ketosis.
When even larger amounts of ketone bodies accumulate such that the

body’s pH is lowered to dangerously acidic levels, this state is called

ketoacidosis..

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Heartburn or pyrosis is a painful or burning sensation in the esophagus, just below the breastbone caused by regurgitation of gastric acid.
The pain often rises in the chest and may radiate to the neck or throat.
Heartburn is also identified as one of the causes of asthma and chronic cough..

Esophagus

The esophagus (also spelled oesophagus/œsophagus), or gullet is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the mouth area to the stomach.
The esophagus is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx at the level of the C6 vertebra.
Food is passed through the esophagus by using the process of peristalsis.
Specifically, in mammals, it connects the pharynx, which is the body cavity that is common to the digestive system and respiratory system behind the mouth (buccal cavity), with the stomach, where the second stage of digestion is initiated (the first stage of digestion is in the mouth, with teeth and tongue masticating food and mixing it with saliva). The esophagus is lined with mucous membrane, and is more deeply lined with muscle that acts with peristaltic action to move swallowed food down to the stomach..

Peptic ulcer

A peptic ulcer is an ulcer of one of those areas of the gastrointestinal tract that are usually acidic.
A more general term, peptic ulcer disease (PUD), is also in use.
Most ulcers are associated with Helicobacter pylori, a spiral-shaped bacterium that lives in the acidic environment of the stomach.
Ulcers can also be caused or worsened by drugs such as Aspirin and other NSAIDs.
Contrary to general belief, more peptic ulcers arise in the duodenum (first part of the small intestine, just after the stomach) than in the stomach.
About 4 % of stomach ulcers are caused by a malignant tumour, so multiple biopsies are needed to make sure.
Duodenal ulcers are generally benign..

Stomach cancer

Stomach cancer (also called gastric cancer) can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus and the small intestine.
It may also spread, through the stomach wall, to nearby lymph nodes and organs such as the liver, pancreas, and the lungs, or to distant organs such as the lymph nodes above the collar bone, the colon, and the ovaries.
Metastasis (the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body) to the ovaries can result in Krukenberg tumors.
Stomach cancer represents roughly 2% (21,500) cases of all new cancer cases yearly in the United States, but it is much more common in Japan, Great Britain, South America, and Iceland.
It is associated with high salt in the diet, smoking, and low intake of fruits and vegetables.
Infection with H.
pylori is the main risk factor in about 80% or more of gastric cancers.
It is more common in men..

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Cystic fibrosis (CF), also called mucoviscidosis, is an autosomal, recessive, hereditary disease of the exocrine glands.
It affects the lungs, sweat glands and the digestive system, causing chronic respiratory and digestive problems.
It is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane

conductance regulator (CFTR) protein..

Exocrine gland

Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products into ducts.
They are the counterparts to endocrine glands, which secrete their

products directly into the bloodstream.
Typical exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands, mammary

glands, and many glands of the digestive system..

Cholera

Cholera (also called Asiatic cholera) is a water borne disease caused by

the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, which are typically ingested by drinking

contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially

shellfish. V.
cholerae occurs naturally in the plankton of fresh, brackish, and salt water,

attached primarily to copepods in the zooplankton.
Coastal cholera outbreaks typically follow zooplankton blooms.
Cholera is transmitted through ingestion of feces contaminated with the

bacterium.
The contamination usually occurs when untreated sewage is released into

waterways or into groundwater, affecting the water supply, any foods

washed in the water, and shellfish living in the affected waterway; it is rarely

spread directly from person to person. The resulting diarrhea allows

bacteria to spread to other people under unsanitary conditions..

Allele

An allele is a viable DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) coding that occupies a

given locus (position) on a chromosome.
Usually alleles are sequences that code for a gene, but sometimes the

term is used to refer to a non-gene sequence.
An individual’s genotype for that gene is the set of alleles it happens to

possess.
In a diploid organism, one that has two copies of each chromosome, two

alleles make up the individual’s genotype. An example is the gene for

blossom color in many species of flower — a single gene controls the color

of the petals, but there may be several different versions (or alleles) of the

gene.
One version might result in red petals, while another might result in white

petals.
The resulting color of an individual flower will depend on which two alleles it

possesses for the gene and how the two interact. An allele is an alternative

form of a gene (in diploids, one member of a pair) that is located at a

specific position on a specific chromosome. Diploid organisms, for

example, humans, have paired homologous chromosomes in their somatic

cells, and these contain two copies of each gene.
An organism in which the two copies of the gene are identical — that is,

have the same allele — is called homozygous for that gene.
An organism which has two different alleles of the gene is called

heterozygous.
Phenotypes (the expressed characteristics) associated with a certain allele

can sometimes be dominant or recessive, but often they are neither.
A dominant phenotype will be expressed when at least one allele of its

associated type is present, whereas a recessive phenotype will only be

expressed when both alleles are of its associated type. However, there are

exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the

phenotype.
One exception is incomplete dominance (sometimes called blending

inheritance) when alleles blend their traits in the phenotype.
An example of this would be seen if, when crossing Antirrhinums — flowers

with incompletely dominant “red” and “white” alleles for petal color — the

resulting offspring had pink petals.
Another exception is co-dominance, where both alleles are active and both

traits are expressed at the same time; for example, both red and white

petals in the same bloom or red and white flowers on the same plant.
Codominance is also apparent in human blood types.
A person with one “A” blood type allele and one “B” blood type allele would

have a blood type of “AB”. A wild type allele is an allele which is

considered to be “normal” for the organism in question, as opposed to a

mutant allele which is usually a relatively new modification. (Note that with

the advent of neutral genetic markers, the term ‘allele’ is now often used to

refer to DNA sequence variants in non-functional, or junk DNA.
For example, allele frequency tables are often presented for genetic

markers, such as the DYS markers.) Also there are many different types of

alleles..

Emphysema

Emphysema is a chronic lung disease.
It is often caused by exposure to toxic chemicals or long-term exposure to

tobacco smoke.
Emphysema is characterized by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue;

destruction of structures supporting the alveoli; and destruction of

capillaries feeding the alveoli.
The result is that the small airways collapse during expiration, leading to an

obstructive form of lung disease (airflow is impeded and air is generally

“trapped” in the lungs in obstructive lung diseases).
Symptoms are: shortness of breath on exertion – typically when climbing

stairs or inclines (and later at rest), hyperventilation and an expanded

chest.
As emphysema progresses, clubbing of the fingers may be observed, a

feature of longstanding hypoxia..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

COX-2 selective inhibitor is a form of Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that directly targets COX-2, an enzyme responsible for inflammation and pain.
Selectivity for COX-2 reduces the risk of peptic ulceration, and is the main feature of celecoxib, rofecoxib and other members of this drug class.
Cox-2-selectivity does not seem to affect other side-effects of NSAIDs (most notably an increased risk of renal failure), and some results have aroused the suspicion that there might be an increase in the risk for heart attack, thrombosis and stroke by a relative increase in thromboxane.
Rofecoxib was taken off the market in 2004 because of these concerns..

Rofecoxib

Rofecoxib is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that was used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, acute pain conditions, and dysmenorrhoea.
Formerly marketed by Merck & Co.
under the trade names Vioxx, Ceoxx and Ceeoxx, it was voluntarily withdrawn from the market in 2004 because of concerns about increased risk of heart attack and stroke..

Analgesic

An analgesic (colloquially known as painkillers) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain and to achieve analgesia.
This derives from Greek an-, “without”, and -algia, “pain”.
Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous system; they include paracetamol (acetaminophen), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as morphine, synthetic drugs with narcotic properties such as tramadol, and various others..

Clinical trial

The most commonly performed clinical trials evaluate new drugs, medical devices, biologics, or other interventions to patients in strictly scientifically controlled settings, and are required for Food and Drug Administration approval of new therapies..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack the joints.
It is a disabling and painful inflammatory condition, which can lead to substantial loss of mobility due to pain and joint destruction.

Arthritis

Arthritis is a group of conditions that affect the health of the bone joints in

the body.
One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the

disease affects about twice as many women as men.Arthritic diseases

include rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune

diseases; septic arthritis, caused by joint infection; and the more common

osteoarthritis, or degenerative joint disease..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

Laryngitis

Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx.
It causes hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of

irritation to the vocal folds (vocal cords)..

Rheumatic fever

Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory disease which may develop after a

Group A streptococcal infection (such as strep throat or scarlet fever) and

can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Diarrhea (American English) or diarrhoea (Commonwealth English) is a
condition in which the sufferer has frequent and watery, chunky, or loose
bowel movements.
In the Third World, diarrhea is the most common cause of death among

infants, killing more than 1.5 million per year..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

Laryngitis

Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx.
It causes hoarse voice or the complete loss of the voice because of

irritation to the vocal folds (vocal cords)..

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis involves diarrhea or vomitting, with noninflammatory infection

of the upper small bowel, or inflammatory infection of the colon, both part of

the gastrointestinal tract.
Usually this is caused by an infection, but this is not always the case.
It usually is of acute onset, normally lasting less than 10 days and

self-limiting.
Sometimes it is referred to simply as ‘gastro’.
It is often called the stomach flu or gastric flu even though it is not related

to influenza..

Gallstone

In medicine, gallstones (choleliths) are crystalline bodies formed within the

body by accretion or concretion of normal or abnormal bile components.
Gallstones can occur anywhere within the biliary tree, including the

gallbladder and the common bile duct..

<strong>”This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.</strong>

Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease (CHD), also called coronary artery disease (CAD) and atherosclerotic heart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the arteries that supply the myocardium (the muscle of the heart)..
High density lipoprotein
High-density lipoproteins (HDL) form a class of lipoproteins, varying somewhat in their size (8-11 nm in diameter) and contents, that carry cholesterol from the body’s tissues to the liver.
Because HDL can remove cholesterol from atheroma within arteries, and transport it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization, they are seen as “good” lipoproteins..

Multi-infarct dementia
Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Avian flu (also “bird flu”, “avian influenza”, “bird influenza”), means “flu from viruses adapted to birds”, but is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to both other flu subsets (such as H5N1 flu) or the viruses that cause them (such as H5N1). “Bird flu” is a phrase similar to “Pig flu”, “Dog flu”, “Horse flu”, or “Human flu” in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of flu viruses such that the strain in question has adapted to the host.
“Avian flu” differs in being named after an entire vertebrate class with

8,800–10,200 species.
All known avian flu viruses belong to the species of virus called Influenza A

virus.
All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are

adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the

Influenza A virus (note that the “A” does not stand for “avian”)..

Flu vaccine

The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza

virus.
The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season

consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from

influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.
Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become

dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation

usually only works for about a year..

Pandemic
A pandemic is an epidemic (an outbreak of an infectious disease) that

spreads worldwide, or at least across a large region.
There have been a number of significant pandemics in human history,

generally zoonoses that came about with domestication of animals – such

as influenza and tuberculosis.
Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus and Bolivian

hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases with the

theoretical potential to become pandemics.
Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited,

however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the

infected vector.
Genetic mutations could occur at which could elevate their potential for

causing widespread harm, thus close observation by contagious disease

specialists is merited.
In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam,

increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains.
It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza

virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly

contagious and highly lethal in humans.
Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the

Spanish Flu, or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian Flu and

the Hong Kong Flu..

Spanish flu

The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as La Grippe Espagnole, or La

Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a

viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people

worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 [1].
It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in

human history.
It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird

flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2..

Influenza pandemic

An influenza pandemic is a large scale epidemic of the influenza virus,

such as the 1918 Spanish flu.
The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that there is a substantial risk

of an influenza pandemic within the next few years.
One of the strongest candidates is the A(H5N1) subtype of avian influenza..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus.The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.
Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become

dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation

usually only works for about a year..

Avian flu

Avian flu (also “bird flu”, “avian influenza”, “bird influenza”), means “flu from

viruses adapted to birds”, but is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to

both other flu subsets (such as H5N1 flu) or the viruses that cause them

(such as H5N1). “Bird flu” is a phrase similar to “Pig flu”, “Dog flu”, “Horse

flu”, or “Human flu” in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many

different strains of flu viruses such that the strain in question has adapted

to the host.
“Avian flu” differs in being named after an entire vertebrate class with

8,800–10,200 species.
All known avian flu viruses belong to the species of virus called Influenza A

virus.
All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are

adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the

Influenza A virus (note that the “A” does not stand for “avian”)..

MMR vaccine

The MMR vaccine is a mixture of live attenuated viruses, administered via

injection for immunization against measles, mumps and rubella.
It is generally administered to children around the age of one year, with a

booster dose before starting school (i.e.
age 4/5).
It is widely used around the world; since introduction of its earliest versions

in the 1970s, over 500 million doses have been used in over 60 countries.
As with all vaccinations, long-term effects and efficacy are subject to

continuing study.
Before the widespread use of a vaccine against measles, its incidence was

so high that patients born before 1949 are assumed to have had measles.
Today the incidence of measles has fallen to less than one percent of

people under the age of 30 in countries with routine childhood vaccination.
Measles has a significant complication rate, which includes pneumonitis

and encephalitis.
There are a number of adverse effects listed in the product documentation

for the MMR vaccine..

Spanish flu

The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as La Grippe Espagnole, or La

Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a

viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people

worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 [1].
It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in

human history.
It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird

flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2..

Influenza pandemic

An influenza pandemic is a large scale epidemic of the influenza virus,

such as the 1918 Spanish flu.
The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that there is a substantial risk

of an influenza pandemic within the next few years.
One of the strongest candidates is the A(H5N1) subtype of avian influenza..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus. The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.

Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become

dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation

usually only works for about a year..

Avian flu

Avian flu (also “bird flu”, “avian influenza”, “bird influenza”), means “flu from

viruses adapted to birds”, but is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to

both other flu subsets (such as H5N1 flu) or the viruses that cause them

(such as H5N1). “Bird flu” is a phrase similar to “Pig flu”, “Dog flu”, “Horse

flu”, or “Human flu” in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many

different strains of flu viruses such that the strain in question has adapted

to the host.
“Avian flu” differs in being named after an entire vertebrate class with

8,800–10,200 species.
All known avian flu viruses belong to the species of virus called Influenza A

virus.
All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are

adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the

Influenza A virus (note that the “A” does not stand for “avian”)..

MMR vaccine

The MMR vaccine is a mixture of live attenuated viruses, administered via

injection for immunization against measles, mumps and rubella.
It is generally administered to children around the age of one year, with a

booster dose before starting school (i.e.age 4/5).
It is widely used around the world; since introduction of its earliest versions

in the 1970s, over 500 million doses have been used in over 60 countries.
As with all vaccinations, long-term effects and efficacy are subject to

continuing study.
Before the widespread use of a vaccine against measles, its incidence was

so high that patients born before 1949 are assumed to have had measles.
Today the incidence of measles has fallen to less than one percent of

people under the age of 30 in countries with routine childhood vaccination.
Measles has a significant complication rate, which includes pneumonitis

and encephalitis.
There are a number of adverse effects listed in the product documentation

for the MMR vaccine..

Spanish flu

The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as La Grippe Espagnole, or La

Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a

viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people

worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 [1].
It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in

human history.
It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird

flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2..

Influenza pandemic

An influenza pandemic is a large scale epidemic of the influenza virus,

such as the 1918 Spanish flu.
The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that there is a substantial risk

of an influenza pandemic within the next few years.
One of the strongest candidates is the A(H5N1) subtype of avian influenza..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus.
The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season

consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from

influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.
Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become

dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation

usually only works for about a year..

Avian flu

Avian flu (also “bird flu”, “avian influenza”, “bird influenza”), means “flu from

viruses adapted to birds”, but is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to

both other flu subsets (such as H5N1 flu) or the viruses that cause them

(such as H5N1). “Bird flu” is a phrase similar to “Pig flu”, “Dog flu”, “Horse

flu”, or “Human flu” in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many

different strains of flu viruses such that the strain in question has adapted

to the host.
“Avian flu” differs in being named after an entire vertebrate class with

8,800–10,200 species.
All known avian flu viruses belong to the species of virus called Influenza A

virus.
All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are

adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the

Influenza A virus (note that the “A” does not stand for “avian”)..

MMR vaccine

The MMR vaccine is a mixture of live attenuated viruses, administered via

injection for immunization against measles, mumps and rubella.
It is generally administered to children around the age of one year, with a

booster dose before starting school (i.e.
age 4/5).
It is widely used around the world; since introduction of its earliest versions

in the 1970s, over 500 million doses have been used in over 60 countries.
As with all vaccinations, long-term effects and efficacy are subject to

continuing study.
Before the widespread use of a vaccine against measles, its incidence was

so high that patients born before 1949 are assumed to have had measles.
Today the incidence of measles has fallen to less than one percent of

people under the age of 30 in countries with routine childhood vaccination.
Measles has a significant complication rate, which includes pneumonitis

and encephalitis.
There are a number of adverse effects listed in the product documentation

for the MMR vaccine..

Spanish flu

The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as La Grippe Espagnole, or La

Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a

viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people

worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 [1].
It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in

human history.
It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird

flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2..

Influenza pandemic

An influenza pandemic is a large scale epidemic of the influenza virus,

such as the 1918 Spanish flu.
The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that there is a substantial risk

of an influenza pandemic within the next few years.
One of the strongest candidates is the A(H5N1) subtype of avian influenza..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A sunburn is a radiation burn to the skin produced by overexposure to
ultraviolet (UV) light, commonly from the sun’s rays. A similar burn can be produced by overexposure to other sources of UV, such as tanning lamps and welding arcs.
Exposure of the skin to lesser amounts of UV will often produce a suntan.
Usual mild symptoms are red or reddish skin that’s hot to the touch, a

washed out feeling, and mild dizziness. Sunburn can be life-threatening and

is a leading cause of cancer.
Sunburn can easily be prevented through the use of sunscreen, clothing

(and hats), and by limiting solar exposure, especially during the middle of

the day.
The only cure for skin burn is slow healing, although skin creams can help..

Sunscreen

Sunscreen (also known as sunblock) is a lotion, spray or other topical

product that helps protect the skin from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation,

and which reduces sunburn and other skin damage, ultimately leading to a

lower risk of skin cancer. The best sunscreens protect against both UVB

(ultraviolet radiation with wavelength between 290 and 320 nanometres),

which can cause sunburn, and UVA (between 320 and 400 nanometres),

which damages the skin with more long-term effects, such as premature

skin aging.
Most sunscreens work by containing either an organic chemical compound

that absorbs ultraviolet light (such as oxybenzone) or an opaque material

that reflects light (such as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide), or a combination of

both.
Typically, absorptive materials are referred to as chemical blocks, whereas

opaque materials are mineral or physical blocks..

UV index

The UV index is an international standard measurement of how strong the

ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is at a particular place on a particular

day.
Its purpose is to help people to effectively protect themselves from UV light,

which causes sunburns, eye damage such as cataracts, skin aging, and

skin cancer (see the section health effects of ultraviolet light).
Public-health organizations recommend that people protect themselves (for

example, by wearing sunscreen and a hat) when the UV index is 3 or

higher..

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength

shorter than that of the visible region, but longer than that of soft X-rays.
The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation in the UVA, UVB, and UVC bands, but

because of absorption in the atmosphere’s ozone layer, 99% of the

ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface is UVA.
(Some of the UVC light is responsible for the generation of the ozone.)

Ordinary glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter

wavelengths.
Ordinary window glass passes about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but

blocks over 90% of the light below 300 nm.
In humans, prolonged exposure to solar UV radiation may result in acute

and chronic health effects on the skin, eye, and immune system.
UVA, UVB and UVC can all damage collagen fibers and thereby accelerate

aging of the skin.
In general, UVA is the least harmful, but can contribute to the aging of skin,

DNA damage and possibly skin cancer.
It penetrates deeply and does not cause sunburn.
Because it does not cause reddening of the skin it cannot be measured in

the SPF testing.
There is no good clinical measurement of the blocking of UVA radiation, but

it is important that sunscreen block both UVA and UVB.
UVB light can cause skin cancer.
A positive effect of UVB light is that it induces the production of vitamin D in

the skin..

Itch

An itch is a sensation felt on an area of skin that causes a person or

animal to desire to scratch that area.
It is a distressing symptom that can cause discomfort.
Scratching may cause breaks in the skin that may result in infection.
Itching can be related to anything from dry skin to undiagnosed cancer.
The central chemical involved in itching is histamine, a molecule released

by mast cells in the skin.
Histamine is the chemical that causes the itch and reddening when bitten

by insects.
It binds to local nerve endings on specific receptors.
An itch from cutaneous (skin-related) stimuli, such as movement of small

hairs on the body, is transmitted along the same pathway as pain..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a human embryo.
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e.differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types

of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so..

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an

organism. Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.
In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as

“gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote,

from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.
Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and

ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated

stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and

connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

Stem cell

Stem cells are primal cells found in all multi-cellular organisms. They retain

the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and can

differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types.
The three broad categories of mammalian stem cells are: embryonic stem

cells, derived from blastocysts, adult stem cells, which are found in adult

tissues, and cord blood stem cells, which are found in the umbilical cord.
In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the

specialized embryonic tissues.
In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system

for the body, replenishing specialized cells. As stem cells can be grown

and transformed into specialized cells with characteristics consistent with

cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture,

their use in medical therapies has been proposed.
In particular, embryonic cell lines, autologous embryonic stem cells

generated through therapeutic cloning, and highly plastic adult stem cells

from the umbilical cord blood or bone marrow are touted as promising

candidates. Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the

potential to change radically the treatment of human disease.
A number of adult stem cell therapies already exist, particularly bone

marrow transplants that are used to treat leukemia..

Neural development

The study of neural development draws on both neuroscience and

developmental biology to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms

by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development

and throughout life..

Stem cell treatments

Medical researchers believe that stem cell treatments have the potential to

change the face of human disease and alleviate suffering.
A number of current stem cell treatments already exists, although they are

not commonly used because they tend to be experimental and not very

cost-effective.
In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies

derived from stem cell research to treat cancer, spinal cord injuries, and

muscle damage, amongst a number of other diseases and impairments..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell.
A mutation or deletion of such a gene will increase the probability of the

formation of a tumor..

BRCA1

BRCA1 (breast cancer 1, early onset) is a human gene that belongs to a

class of genes known as tumor suppressor genes.
Like many other tumor suppressor genes, BRCA1 regulates the cycle of

cell division by keeping cells from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an

uncontrolled way.
In particular, it inhibits the growth of cells that line the milk ducts in the

breast. The protein made by the BRCA1 gene is directly involved in the

repair of damaged DNA.
In the nucleus of many types of normal cells, the BRCA1 protein interacts

with the protein produced by the RAD51 gene to mend breaks in DNA..

BRCA2

BRCA2 is a human gene that is involved in the repair of chromosomal

damage and belongs to a class of genes known as tumor suppressor

genes.
Tumor suppressor genes regulate the cycle of cell division by keeping cells

from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an uncontrolled way. Although

the structures of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are very different, their

functions appear to be similar.
The proteins made by both genes are essential for repairing damaged DNA.
The BRCA2 protein binds to and regulates the protein produced by the

RAD51 gene to fix breaks in DNA..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Heat shock protein

Heat shock proteins (HSP) are a group of proteins the expression of which

is increased when the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Menopause (also known as the “Change of life” or climacteric) is a stage of the human female reproductive cycle that occurs as the ovaries stop producing estrogen, causing the reproductive system to gradually shut down.

As the body adapts to the changing levels of natural hormones,

vasomotor symptoms such as hot flashes and palpitations appear..

Hysterectomy

A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus, usually done by a

gynecologist. Hysterectomy may be total (removing the body and cervix of

the uterus) or partial (also called supra-cervical)..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

General anxiety disorder

General anxiety disorder or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is an

anxiety disorder that is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable

worry about everyday things.
The frequency, intensity, and duration of the worry are disproportionate to

the actual source of worry, and such worry often interferes with daily

functioning..

Toxic shock syndrome

Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused

by a bacterial toxin. Different bacterial toxins may cause toxic shock

syndrome, depending on the situation.The causative agent is

Staphylococcus aureus..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Mesothelioma is an uncommon form of cancer, usually associated with previous exposure to asbestos.In this disease, malignant (cancerous) cells develop in the mesothelium, a protective lining that covers most of the body’s internal organs.
Most people who develop mesothelioma have worked on jobs where they

inhaled asbestos particles, or have been exposed to asbestos dust and

fibre in other ways, such as by washing the clothes of a family member

who worked with asbestos, or by home renovation using asbestos cement

products..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a malignant tumour of the lungs.
Most commonly it is bronchogenic carcinoma (about 90%).
Lung cancer is the most lethal malignant tumour worldwide, causing up to

3 million deaths annually..

Rash

A rash is a change in the skin which affects its appearance or texture.A

rash may be localised to one part of the body, or affect all the skin.
Rashes may cause the skin to change color, itch, become warm, bumpy,

dry, cracked or blistered, swell and may be painful..

Mole (skin marking)

A mole or melanocytic naevus is a small, dark spot on the skin.
It can be subdermal made of melanin, or a pigmented growth on the skin,

formed mostly of melanocytes..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Lymphoma is a variety of cancer that originates in lymphocytes or, more rarely, of histiocytes.Collectively, these cell types form the reticuloendothelial system and circulate in the vessels of the lymphatic system.
Just as there are many types of lymphocytes, so there are many types of

lymphoma.
Lymphomas are part of the broad group of diseases called hematological

neoplasms.
Because the lymphatic system is part of the body’s immune system,

patients with weakened immune system, such as from HIV infection or

from certain drugs or medication, also have a higher incidence of

lymphoma..

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Hodgkin’s lymphoma, formerly known as Hodgkin’s disease, is a type of

lymphoma first described by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832.
Hodgkin’s lymphoma is characterized clinically by the orderly spread of

disease from one lymph node group to another and by the development of

systemic symptoms with advanced disease.
Pathologically, the disease is characterized by the presence of

Reed-Sternberg cells.
Swollen but painless lymph nodes are the most common sign of Hodgkin’s

lymphoma, often occurring in the neck.
The lymph nodes of the chest are often affected and these may be noticed

on a chest X-ray.
Hodgkin’s lymphoma was one of the first cancers to be rendered curable by

combination chemotherapy.
Currently, the ABVD chemotherapy regimen is the gold standard for

treatment of Hodgkin’s disease.
With appropriate treatment, over 85% of Hodgkin’s lymphoma cases are

curable..

Leukemia

Leukemia (leukaemia in Commonwealth English) is a cancer of the blood or

bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of blood cells,

usually white blood cells (leukocytes). It is part of the broad group of

diseases called hematological neoplasms..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Epstein-Barr virus

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), also called Human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), is

a virus of the herpes family (which includes Herpes simplex virus and

Cytomegalovirus), and is one of the most common viruses in humans.
Most people become infected with EBV, which is often asymptomatic but

commonly causes infectious mononucleosis.
Epstein-Barr can cause infectious mononucleosis, also known as ‘glandular

fever’, ‘Mono’ and ‘Pfeiffer’s disease’.
Infectious mononucleosis is caused when a person is first exposed to the

virus during or after adolesence..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Metastasis is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body (e.g., brain, liver).
Cancer cells can break away from a primary tumor, penetrate into

lymphatic and blood vessels, circulate through the bloodstream, and grow

in a distant focus (metastasize) in normal tissues elsewhere in the body..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Tumor suppressor gene

A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell

in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell.
A mutation or deletion of such a gene will increase the probability of the

formation of a tumor..

Glioma

A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that

arises from glial cells.
The most common site of involvement of a glioma is the brain, but they can

also affect the spinal cord, or any other part of the CNS, such as the optic

nerves..

Brain tumor

A brain tumor is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and

uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself:

neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells),

lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing

Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and

pineal gland, or spread from cancers primarily located in other organs

(metastatic tumors)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Leukemia (leukaemia in Commonwealth English) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes).It is part of the broad group of diseases called hematological neoplasms..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

Laryngitis

Laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx. It causes hoarse voice or the

complete loss of the voice because of irritation to the vocal folds (vocal

cords)..

Scarlet fever

Scarlet fever is an exotoxin-mediated disease caused by Group A

streptococcal infection that occurs most often in association with a sore

throat and rarely with impetigo or other streptococcal infections..

Bacterial meningitis

Bacterial meningitis is a condition in which the dural layers lining the brain

(the meninges) have become inflamed.
The classic symptoms of bacterial meningitis are similar to those of other

forms of meningitis, including fever, headache, light sensitivity

(photophobia), and confusion..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Metastasis is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body (e.g., brain, liver).
Cancer cells can break away from a primary tumor, penetrate into

lymphatic and blood vessels, circulate through the bloodstream, and grow

in a distant focus (metastasize) in normal tissues elsewhere in the body..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Tumor suppressor gene

A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell

in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell.
A mutation or deletion of such a gene will increase the probability of the

formation of a tumor..

Glioma

A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that

arises from glial cells.
The most common site of involvement of a glioma is the brain, but they can

also affect the spinal cord, or any other part of the CNS, such as the optic

nerves..

Brain tumor

A brain tumor is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and

uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself:

neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells),

lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing

Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and

pineal gland, or spread from cancers primarily located in other organs

(metastatic tumors)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell.
A mutation or deletion of such a gene will increase the probability of the

formation of a tumor..

BRCA1

BRCA1 (breast cancer 1, early onset) is a human gene that belongs to a

class of genes known as tumor suppressor genes.
Like many other tumor suppressor genes, BRCA1 regulates the cycle of

cell division by keeping cells from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an

uncontrolled way.
In particular, it inhibits the growth of cells that line the milk ducts in the

breast. The protein made by the BRCA1 gene is directly involved in the

repair of damaged DNA.
In the nucleus of many types of normal cells, the BRCA1 protein interacts

with the protein produced by the RAD51 gene to mend breaks in DNA..

BRCA2

BRCA2 is a human gene that is involved in the repair of chromosomal

damage and belongs to a class of genes known as tumor suppressor

genes.
Tumor suppressor genes regulate the cycle of cell division by keeping cells

from growing and dividing too rapidly or in an uncontrolled way. Although

the structures of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are very different, their

functions appear to be similar.
The proteins made by both genes are essential for repairing damaged DNA.
The BRCA2 protein binds to and regulates the protein produced by the

RAD51 gene to fix breaks in DNA..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Heat shock protein

Heat shock proteins (HSP) are a group of proteins the expression of which

is increased when the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Mammography is the process of using low-dose X-rays (usually around 0.7 mSv) to examine the human breast.It is used to look for different types of tumors and cysts.
Mammography has been proven to reduce mortality from breast cancer.
No other imaging technique has been shown to reduce risk, but self-breast

examination (SBE) and physician examination are essential parts of regular

breast care.
In some countries routine (annual to five-yearly) mammography of older

women is encouraged as a screening method to diagnose early breast

cancer.
Like all x-rays, mammograms use doses of ionizing radiation to create the

image.
Radiologists then analyze the image for any abnormal growths.
It is normal to use longer wavelength X-rays (typically Mo-K) than those

used for radiography of bones. At this time, mammography along with

physical breast examination is still the modality of choice for screening for

early breast cancer..

Breast cancer

Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue.
Worldwide, it is the most common form of cancer in females, affecting

approximately 1 out of 11-12 women at some stage of their life in the

Western world.
Although significant efforts are made to achieve early detection and

effective treatment, about 20% of all women with breast cancer will die from

the disease, and it is the second most common cause of cancer deaths in

women..

Radiography

Radiography is the creation of images by exposing a photographic film or

other image receptor to X-rays.
Since X-rays penetrate solid objects, but are weakened by them depending

on the object’s composition, the resulting picture reveals the internal

structure of the object.
The most common use of radiography is in the medical field (where it is

known as medical imaging), but veterinarians and engineers also use it..

Breast reconstruction

Breast reconstruction is the rebuilding of a breast, usually in women.
It involves using autologous tissue or prosthetic material to construct a

natural-looking breast..

Breast implant

A breast implant is a prosthesis used in cosmetic surgery to enlarge the

size of a woman’s breasts (known as breast augmentation), or to

reconstruct the breast (e.g., to correct genetic deformities or after a

mastectomy, or during male-to-female sex reassignment surgery)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Metastasis is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body (e.g., brain, liver).
Cancer cells can break away from a primary tumor, penetrate into

lymphatic and blood vessels, circulate through the bloodstream, and grow

in a distant focus (metastasize) in normal tissues elsewhere in the body..

Tumor

Tumor (American English) or tumour (British English) originally means

“swelling”, and is sometimes still used with that meaning.
Tumor meaning swelling is one of the five classical characteristics of

inflammation.
However, the term is now primarily used to denote abnormal growth of

tissue.
This growth can be either malignant or benign..

Tumor suppressor gene

A tumor suppressor gene is a gene that reduces the probability that a cell

in a multicellular organism will turn into a tumor cell.
A mutation or deletion of such a gene will increase the probability of the

formation of a tumor..

Glioma

A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that

arises from glial cells.
The most common site of involvement of a glioma is the brain, but they can

also affect the spinal cord, or any other part of the CNS, such as the optic

nerves..

Brain tumor

A brain tumor is any intracranial mass created by an abnormal and

uncontrolled growth of cells either normally found in the brain itself:

neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells),

lymphatic tissue, blood vessels), in the cranial nerves (myelin producing

Schwann cells), in the brain envelopes (meninges), skull, pituitary and

pineal gland, or spread from cancers primarily located in other organs

(metastatic tumors)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease (CHD), also called coronary artery disease (CAD) and atherosclerotic heart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the arteries that supply the myocardium (the muscle of the heart)..
Heart valve
In anatomy, the heart valves are valves in the heart that maintain the unidirectional flow of blood by opening and closing depending on the difference in pressure on each side..
Defibrillation
Defibrillation is a medical technique used to counter the onset of ventricular fibrillation, (VF) a common cause of cardiac arrest, and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, which sometimes precedes ventricular fibrillation but can be just as dangerous on its own.
Defibrillation is a technique used in emergency medicine to terminate ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia.
It uses an electrical shock to reset the electrical state of the heart so that it may beat to a rhythm controlled by its own natural pacemaker cells.
It is not effective for asystole (complete cessation of cardiac activity, more commonly known as “flatline”) and pulseless electrical activity (PEA).
The purpose of defibrillation of ventricular arrhythmias is to apply a controlled electrical shock to the heart, which leads to depolarization of the entire electrical conduction system of the heart.
When the heart repolarizes, the normal electrical conduction may assert itself, in which case the ventricular arrhythmia is terminated.
However, if not enough energy is used for defibrillation, the heart may not be completely depolarized, in which case the ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation may not be terminated.
Also, if the heart itself is not getting enough oxygen or if there is an instability of the electrolytes in the cardiac cells, the ventricular arrhythmia may recur..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Pulmonary embolism is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a blood clot, fat, air or clumped tumor cells.
By far the most common form of pulmonary embolism is a

thromboembolism, which occurs when a blood clot, generally a venous

thrombus, becomes dislodged from its site of formation and embolizes to

the arterial blood supply of one of the lungs.
Symptoms may include difficulty breathing, pain during breathing, and more

rarely circulatory instability and death.
Treatment is with anticoagulant medication, such as warfarin..

Cardiac arrest

A cardiac arrest is the cessation of normal circulation of the blood due to

failure of the ventricles of the heart to contract effectively during systole.
The resulting lack of blood supply results in cell death from oxygen

starvation.
Cerebral hypoxia, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain, causes victims to

lose consciousness and stop breathing..

Stroke

A stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) occurs when the blood supply

to a part of the brain is suddenly interrupted.
In brain tissue, a reduction of blood flow, cerebral ischemia, leads to an

ischemic cascade that can damage or kill brain cells.
Stroke is diagnosed through several techniques..

Emphysema

Emphysema is a chronic lung disease.
It is often caused by exposure to toxic chemicals or long-term exposure to

tobacco smoke.
Emphysema is characterized by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue;

destruction of structures supporting the alveoli; and destruction of

capillaries feeding the alveoli.
The result is that the small airways collapse during expiration, leading to an

obstructive form of lung disease (airflow is impeded and air is generally

“trapped” in the lungs in obstructive lung diseases).
Symptoms are: shortness of breath on exertion – typically when climbing

stairs or inclines (and later at rest), hyperventilation and an expanded

chest.
As emphysema progresses, clubbing of the fingers may be observed, a

feature of longstanding hypoxia..

COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an umbrella term for a

group of respiratory tract diseases that are characterized by airflow

obstruction or limitation.
The most common cause is tobacco smoking, but COPD can also be

caused by exposure to other airway irritants like coal dust or solvents.
In some cases there are no known causes (idiopathic COPD) or the

disease may arise due to congenital defects.
COPD is a progressive disease.
Obstructive changes in spirometry and decreases in diffusion capacity are

typically seen before symptoms occur.
Early signs and symptoms are shortness of breath on exertion, recurrent

respiratory infections or a morning cough..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Spina bifida describes birth defects caused by an incomplete closure of
one or more vertebral arches of the spine, resulting in malformations of the spinal cord..

Scoliosis

Scoliosis is a condition that involves complex lateral and rotational

curvature and deformity of the spine.
It is typically classified as congenital (caused by vertebral anomalies

present at birth), idiopathic (sub-classified as infantile, juvenile, adolescent,

or adult according to when onset occurred) or as having developed as a

secondary symptom of another condition, such as cerebral palsy or spinal

muscular atrophy..

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) describes a spectrum of

permanent and often devastating birth-defect syndromes caused by

maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy..

Fetus

A fetus (also foetus) is a developing mammal after the embryonic stage and

before birth.
The plural is fetuses or foetuses.
In humans, a fetus develops from the end of the 8th week of pregnancy

(when the major structures have formed), until birth.
Factors affecting fetal growth can be maternal, placental, or fetal.
Maternal factors include maternal size, weight, weight for height, nutritional

state, anemia, high environmental noise exposure, cigarette smoking,

substance abuse, or uterine blood flow.
Placental factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture),

umbilical blood flow, transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization

and nutrient production.
Fetal factors include the fetus genome, nutrient production, and hormone

output.
Inappropriate growth can result in low birth weight..

Robotic surgery

Robotic surgery is the use of robots in performing surgery.
Three major advances aided by surgical robots have been remote surgery,

minimally invasive surgery, and unmanned surgery.
Major potential advantages of robotic surgery are precision and

miniaturization.
Further advantages are articulation beyond normal manipulation and

three-dimensional magnification.
Some surgical robots are autonomous, and they are not always under the

control of a surgeon.
They are only sometimes used as tools to extend the surgical skills of a

trained surgeon..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The peripheral nervous system or PNS, is part of the nervous system, and consists of the nerves and neurons that reside or extend outside the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to serve the limbs and organs,

for example.
Unlike the central nervous system, however, the PNS is not protected by

bone or the blood-brain barrier, leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical

injuries.
The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system

and the autonomic nervous system..

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is part of the autonomic nervous

system (ANS), which also includes the parasympathetic nervous system

(PNS).
The sympathetic nervous system activates what is often termed the fight or

flight response. Like other parts of the nervous system, the sympathetic

nervous system operates through a series of interconnected neurons.
Sympathetic neurons are frequently considered part of the peripheral

nervous system (PNS), although there are many that lie within the central

nervous system (CNS).
Sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord (which is part of the CNS)

communicate with peripheral sympathetic neurons via a series of

sympathetic ganglia.
Within the ganglia, spinal cord sympathetic neurons join peripheral

sympathetic neurons through chemical synapses.
Spinal cord sympathetic neurons are therefore called presynaptic (or

preganglionic) neurons, while peripheral sympathetic neurons are called

postsynaptic (or postganglionic) neurons. At synapses within the

sympathetic ganglia, preganglionic sympathetic neurons release

acetylcholine, a chemical messenger that binds and activates nicotinic

acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons.
In response to this stimulus, postganglionic neurons principally release

noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
Prolonged activation can elicit the release of adrenaline from the adrenal

medulla. Once released, noradrenaline and adrenaline bind adrenergic

receptors on peripheral tissues.
Binding to adrenergic receptors causes the effects seen during the

fight-or-flight response.
These include pupil dilation, increased sweating, increased heart rate, and

increased blood pressure. Sympathetic nerves originate inside the vertebral

column, toward the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral cell

column (or lateral horn), beginning at the first thoracic segment of the

spinal cord and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar

segments.
Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal

cord, the CNS is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow.
Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord in the ventral branches (rami) of

the spinal nerves, and then separate out as ‘white rami’ (so called from the

shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) which connect to two

chain ganglia extending alongside the vertebral column on the left and right.
These elongated ganglia are also known as paravertebral ganglia or

sympathetic trunks.
In these hubs, connections (synapses) are made which then distribute the

nerves to major organs, glands, and other parts of the body..

Motor neuron

In vertebrates, motor neurons (also called motoneurons) are efferent

neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse with muscle fibers to

facilitate muscle contraction and with muscle spindles to modify

proprioceptive sensitivity..

Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) represents the largest part of the

nervous system, including the brain and the spinal cord.
Together with the peripheral nervous system, it has a fundamental role in

the control of behavior.
The CNS is contained within the dorsal cavity, with the brain within the

cranial subcavity, and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity..

Spinal cord

The spinal cord is a part of the vertebrate nervous system that is enclosed

in and protected by the vertebral column (it passes through the spinal

canal).
It consists of nerve cells.
The cord conveys the 31 spinal nerve pairs of the peripheral nervous

system, as well as central nervous system pathways that innervate

skeletal muscles..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

The house dust mite is a cosmopolitan guest in human habitation.
Mites belong to the order same as spiders, and have existed for longer than insects.
Dust mites flourish in the controlled environment provided to them by

buildings.
In nature they are killed by predators and by exposure to direct sun rays.
Dust mites are considered to be the most common cause of asthma and

allergic symptoms worldwide.
The enzymes they produce can be smelled most strongly in full vacuum

cleaner bags.
It is just possible to see a dust mite under a magnifying glass, when the

subject is well lit and placed on a black background.
Bleach and strong soaps do not kill dust mites.
A simple washing will remove most, in the waste water.
Temperatures of over 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit) for a

period of one hour are usually fatal to dust mites; freezing may also be

fatal.
Dust mites reproduce quickly enough that their effect on human health can

be significant..

Mite

Mites, together with ticks, belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as

Acari) and the class Arachnida.
Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate

groups.
They have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their

small size (some are microscopic) most go totally unnoticed.
Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a large number of

species that live as parasites on plants or animals and even some that feed

on mold. Some of the plant pests include the so called spider mites (family

Tetranychidae), thread-footed mites (family Tarsonemidae), and the gall

mites (family Eriophyidae).
Among the species that attack animals are members of the Sarcoptic

Mange mites (family Sarcoptidae), which burrow under the skin.
Demodex mites (family Demodicoidea) are parasites that live in or near the

hair follicles of mammals, including humans.
Perhaps the best-known mite, though, is the house dust mite (family

Pyroglyphidae).
Insects may also have parasitic mites..

Mange

Mange is an parasitic infestation of the skin of animals.
Common symptoms include hair loss and itching and inflammation, all of

which are caused by microscopic mites.
Mange is most commonly found in dogs and other canines, but it can

occur in other domestic and wild animals.
Also called demodicosis or Red Mange, demodectic mange in dogs is

caused by an overpopulation of Demodex canis.
This is a mite that occurs naturally in the hair follicles of most dogs in low

numbers around the face.
In most dogs, these mites never cause problems.
However, in certain situations, such as an impaired immune system,

intense stress, or malnutrition, the mites can reproduce rapidly, causing

symptoms that range from mild irritation and hair loss on a small patch of

skin to severe and widespread inflammation, secondary infection, and – in

rare cases – a life-threatening condition.
Small patches of demodicosis often correct themselves over time, although

treatment is usually recommended..

Allergen

An allergen is any substance (antigen), most often eaten or inhaled, that is

recognized by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction.
Dust, pollen and pet dander are all common allergens, but it is possible to

be allergic to anything. Most humans mount significant IgE

(immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a class of antibody) responses only as a

defense against parasitic infections.
However, some individuals mount an IgE response against common

environmental antigens.
This hereditory predisposition is called atopy.
In atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE

production, leading to type I hypersensitivity.
A nonparasitic antigen capable of stimulating a type I hypersensitivity

reaction in atopic individuals is called an allergen. Sensitivities vary from

one person to another and it is possible to be allergic to an extraordinary

range of substances. Dust, pollen and pet dander are all common

allergens, but it is possible to be allergic to anything from chlorine to

perfume.
Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such

as peanuts (really a legume), nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of

serious allergies in many people. Officially, the Food and Drug

Administration does recognize 8 foods as being common for allergic

reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population, which includes,

peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives,

soy and their derivatives, and sulphites (chemical based, often found in

flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over. It should be noted that

other countries, due to differences in genetic profiles of its citizens and

different levels of exposure to different foods, the “official” allergen list will

change.
Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and

also recognizes Sesame Seeds. Poison ivy is a plant that will cause an

allergic reaction in 70-85% of humans.
But, given enough repeated contact—like any allergy, most human bodies

will learn to fight the allergen. An allergic reaction can be caused by any

form of direct contact with the allergen—eating or drinking a food you are

sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander

(inhalation), or brushing your body against an allergy-causing plant (direct

contact, generally resulting in hives).
Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings,

penicillin, and latex.
An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction, which can kill in mere

minutes, is called anaphylaxis.
One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine (via

“Epi-Pen”) to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the

body’s overreaction to the food ingested, and allows for time to be

transported to a medical facilty (it does not “cure” the allergic reaction)..

Yellow sac spider

The Yellow sac spider (Cheiracanthium inclusum) is not a true sac spider

but a long-legged sac spider.
It is one of a handful of spiders in North America whose bites are generally

considered to be medically significant..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Arthritis is a group of conditions that affect the health of the bone joints in the body.
One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the

disease affects about twice as many women as men.Arthritic diseases

include rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune

diseases; septic arthritis, caused by joint infection; and the more common

osteoarthritis, or degenerative joint disease..

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disorder

that causes the immune system to attack the joints.
It is a disabling and painful inflammatory condition, which can lead to

substantial loss of mobility due to pain and joint destruction.

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA, also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative

joint disease, and sometimes referred to as “arthrosis” or “osteoarthrosis”),

is a condition in which low-grade inflammation results in pain in the joints,

caused by wearing of the cartilage that covers and acts as a cushion inside

joints.
As the bone surfaces become less well protected by cartilage, the patient

experiences pain upon weight bearing, including walking and standing..

Rheumatic fever

Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory disease which may develop after a

Group A streptococcal infection (such as strep throat or scarlet fever) and

can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Pernicious anemia

Pernicious anemia refers to a type of autoimmune anemia.
Antibodies are directed against intrinsic factor or parietal cells which produce intrinsic factor.
Intrinsic factor is required for vitamin B12 absorption, so impaired

absorption of vitamin B12 can result.
An anemia is a deficiency of the blood cells, but in addition to blood cells,

many other cells in the body need vitamin B12, including nerve cells..

Cells of the stomach

Parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) are the stomach epithelium cells

which secrete gastric acid.
Parietal cells produce gastric acid (hydrochloric acid) in response to

histamine (via H2 receptors), acetylcholine (M3 receptors) and gastrin

(gastrin receptors).
Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi)

from which the HCl is secreted by active transport into the stomach..

B vitamins

Vitamin B is a complex of several vitamins.
The name arises because it was once considered a single vitamin, much

like Vitamin C or Vitamin D..

Micronutrient

Micronutrients are essential elements needed by life in small quantities.
They include microminerals and Vitamins. Microminerals or trace elements

include at least iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese,

selenium, zinc, and molybdenum.
They are dietary minerals needed by the human body in very small

quantities (generally less than 100mg/day) as opposed to macrominerals

which are required in larger quantities.
Note that the use of the term “mineral” here is distinct from the usage in

the geological sciences.
Vitamins are organic chemicals that a given living organism requires in

trace quantities for good health, but which the organism cannot synthesize,

and therefore must obtain from its diet..

Dementia

Dementia is progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or

disease in the brain beyond what might be expected from normal aging.
Particularly affected areas may be memory, attention, language and

problem solving, although particularly in the later stages of the condition,

affected persons may be disoriented in time (not knowing what day, week,

month or year it is), place (not knowing where they are) and person (not

knowing who they are)..

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Detox, short for detoxification, in general is the removal of toxic substances from the body.
It is one of the functions of the liver and kidneys, but can also be achieved artificially by techniques such as dialysis and (in a very limited number of cases) chelation therapy..

Detox diet

A detox diet is a dietary regimen involving a change in consumption habits in an attempt to detoxify the body by removal of toxins or other contaminants.
It is claimed to improve health, energy, resistance to disease, mental state, digestion, as well as aiding in weight loss.
Detox diets usually suggest that fruits and vegetables compose a majority of one’s food intake.
Limiting this to unprocessed (and sometimes also non-GM) foods is often advocated.
Limiting or eliminating alcohol is also a major factor, and drinking more water (which helps curb appetite) is similarly recommended.
Critics point out that the human liver, kidneys, lungs and skin have evolved to adequately expel environmental contaminants and are perfectly equipped to continue to do so unassisted.
It has been posited that some fruits and vegetables may actually contain more natural toxins than animal substances such as meat, fish, and milk..
Dialysis
In medicine, renal dialysis is a method for removing waste such as urea from the blood when the kidneys are incapable of this (i.e.
in renal failure).
In acute renal failure, (renal) dialysis is generally initiated when the renal function has deteriorated to an extent that it is threatening the body’s physiology..

Excretory system
The excretory system is the system of an organism’s body that performs the function of excretion, the bodily process of discharging wastes.
The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
There are several parts of the body that are involved in this process, such as sweat glands, the liver, the lungs and the kidney system.
Every human has two kidneys.
Each kidney is made up of three sections: the renal cortex, the renal medulla and the renal pelvis.
The blood arrives at the kidney via the renal artery, which splits into many afferent arterioles.
These arterioles go to the Bowman’s Capsules of nephrons, where the wastes are taken out of the blood by pressure filtration.
Peritubular capillaries also surround the nephron so substances can be taken in and out of the blood.
The renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidney and the medulla is the inner layer of the kidney.
The renal pelvis takes urine away from the kidney via the ureter.
Both of the ureters lead the urine into the body’s only urinary bladder, which expands and sends nerve impulses when full.
From there, urine is expelled through the urethra and out of the body..

Alcoholism
Alcoholism is the consumption of or preoccupation with alcoholic beverages to the extent that this behavior interferes with the alcoholic’s normal personal, family, social, or work life.
The chronic alcohol consumption caused by alcoholism can result in psychological and physiological disorders.
Alcoholism is one of the world’s most costly drug use problems.
While alcohol use is required to trigger alcoholism, the biological mechanism of alcoholism is uncertain.
For most people, moderate alcohol consumption poses little danger of addiction.
Other factors must exist for alcohol use to develop into alcoholism.
These factors may include a person’s social environment, emotional health and genetic predisposition.
In addition, an alcoholic can develop multiple forms of addiction to alcohol simultaneously such as psychological, metabolic, and neurochemical..

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A stillbirth occurs when a fetus, of mid-second trimester to full term gestational age, which has died in the womb or during labour or delivery, exits the maternal body..
Breech birth
A breech birth (also known as breech presentation) refers to the position of the baby in the uterus such that it will be delivered buttocks first as opposed to the normal head first position.
Certain factors can encourage a breech presentation.
These include multiple (or multifetal) pregnancy (twins, triplets or more), excessive amounts of amniotic fluid, hydrocephaly, anencephaly, very short umbilical cord, and some uterine abnormalities.
Babies with congenital abnormalities are more likely to present by the breech.
It is postulated that the baby normally assumes a head down presentation because of the weight of the baby’s head.
As the mass of the fetal head is the same as that of the pelvis, it is more likely that the enlarging fetus is more and more restricted in its movements, and simply becomes entrapped.
The shape of the uterus is a more likely determinant of the final fetal presentation as uterine shape anomalies are strong predictors of breech presentation and other malpresentations..
Birth weight
Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth.
It has direct links with the gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated during the pregnancy by measuring fundal height..
Miscarriage
Miscarriage or spontaneous abortion is the natural or accidental termination of a pregnancy at a stage where the embryo or the fetus is incapable of surviving, generally defined at a gestation of prior to 20 weeks.
Miscarriages are the most common complication of pregnancy..
Placenta
The placenta is an ephemeral (temporary) organ present only in female placental vertebrates during gestation (pregnancy).
All mammals other than monotremes and (most) marsupials utilise placentas in reproduction, and are known as placental mammals.
Also, some species of snakes utilise placentas. The placenta is composed of two parts, one of which is genetically and biologically part of the fetus, the other part of the mother.
It is implanted in the wall of the uterus, where it receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s blood and passes out waste.
This interface forms a barrier, the placental barrier, which filters out some substances which could harm the fetus.
However, many other substances are not filtered out, including alcohol and some chemicals associated with smoking cigarettes.
Several types of viruses, such as Human Cytomegalovirus, may also cross this barrier; this often leads to various degrees of birth defects in the infant.
The placenta is connected to the fetus via the umbilical cord, which is composed of blood vessels and connective tissue.
When the fetus is delivered, the placenta is delivered afterwards (and for this reason is often called the afterbirth)..

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Dementia with Lewy bodies Dementia with Lewy bodies is the second most frequent cause of hospitalization for dementia, after Alzheimer’s disease.
Current estimates are that about 60 to 75% of diagnosed dementias are of

the Alzheimer’s and mixed (Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia) type, 10 to

15% are Lewy Bodies type, with the remaining types being of an entire

spectrum of dementias including frontotemporal, Pick’s disease, alcoholic

dementia, pure vascular dementia, etc..

Dementia

Dementia is progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or

disease in the brain beyond what might be expected from normal aging.
Particularly affected areas may be memory, attention, language and

problem solving, although particularly in the later stages of the condition,

affected persons may be disoriented in time (not knowing what day, week,

month or year it is), place (not knowing where they are) and person (not

knowing who they are)..

Multi-infarct dementia

Multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia, is a form of

dementia resulting from brain damage caused by stroke or transient

ischemic attacks (also known as mini-strokes)..

Parkinson’s disease

Parkinson’s disease (paralysis agitans or PD) is a neurodegenerative

disease of the substantia nigra, an area in the basal ganglia of the brain.
The disease involves a progressive disorder of the extrapyramidal system,

which controls and adjusts communication between neurons in the brain

and muscles in the human body.
It also commonly involves depression and disturbances of sensory

systems..

Hallucination

A hallucination is a sensory perception experienced in the absence of an

external stimulus, as distinct from an illusion, which is a misperception of

an external stimulus.
Hallucinations may occur in any sensory modality – visual, auditory,

olfactory, gustatory, tactile, or proprioceptive (sense of balance and

position in space).
Psychological research has presented the idea that hallucinations may

result from biases in what are known as metacognitive abilities.
These are abilities that allow us to monitor or draw inferences from our own

internal psychological states (such as intentions, memories, beliefs and

thoughts).
The ability to discriminate between self-generated and external sources of

information is considered to be an important metacognitive skill and one

which may break down to cause hallucinatory experiences..

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An allergen is any substance (antigen), most often eaten or inhaled, that is recognized by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction.
Dust, pollen and pet dander are all common allergens, but it is possible to be allergic to anything. Most humans mount significant IgE

(immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a class of antibody) responses only as a

defense against parasitic infections.
However, some individuals mount an IgE response against common

environmental antigens.
This hereditory predisposition is called atopy.
In atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE

production, leading to type I hypersensitivity.
A nonparasitic antigen capable of stimulating a type I hypersensitivity

reaction in atopic individuals is called an allergen. Sensitivities vary from

one person to another and it is possible to be allergic to an extraordinary

range of substances. Dust, pollen and pet dander are all common

allergens, but it is possible to be allergic to anything from chlorine to

perfume.
Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such

as peanuts (really a legume), nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of

serious allergies in many people. Officially, the Food and Drug

Administration does recognize 8 foods as being common for allergic

reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population, which includes,

peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives,

soy and their derivatives, and sulphites (chemical based, often found in

flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over. It should be noted that

other countries, due to differences in genetic profiles of its citizens and

different levels of exposure to different foods, the “official” allergen list will

change.
Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and

also recognizes Sesame Seeds. Poison ivy is a plant that will cause an

allergic reaction in 70-85% of humans.
But, given enough repeated contact—like any allergy, most human bodies

will learn to fight the allergen. An allergic reaction can be caused by any

form of direct contact with the allergen—eating or drinking a food you are

sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander

(inhalation), or brushing your body against an allergy-causing plant (direct

contact, generally resulting in hives).
Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings,

penicillin, and latex.
An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction, which can kill in mere

minutes, is called anaphylaxis.
One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine (via

“Epi-Pen”) to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the

body’s overreaction to the food ingested, and allows for time to be

transported to a medical facilty (it does not “cure” the allergic reaction)..

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currently known as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (also

known as attention deficit disorder (ADD)) when it occurs in adulthood.

Although the exact prevalence in adults is unknown, epidemiologic studies

thus far reveal that the condition, marked by inattentiveness, difficulty

getting work done, procrastination, or organization problems, probably

exists in about 2-4% of adults.
Adults’ symptoms may manifest themselves differently from children’s.
Often the most prominent characteristic in ADHD adults is difficulty with

executive functioning, which is the brain activity that oversees the ability to

monitor a person’s own behavior by planning and organizing.
Other symptoms observed in adults include inattention, impulsivity, and

restlessness as well as frequently accompanying behavioral, learning, and

emotional problems.
Adults with hyperactive-impulsive symptoms feel restless and constantly

“on the go” as they try to do multiple tasks at once.
They are often perceived as not thinking before they act or speak..
For more information about the topic Adult attention-deficit disorder, read

the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
Autistic spectrum — The autistic spectrum (sometimes referred to as the

autism spectrum) is a developmental and behavioral syndrome that results

from certain …

The autistic spectrum (sometimes referred to as the autism spectrum) is a

developmental and behavioral syndrome that results from certain

combinations of characteristically autistic traits.

Although these traits may be normally distributed in the population, some

individuals inherit or otherwise manifest more autistic traits.
At the severe end of the spectrum is low-functioning autism which has

profound impairments in many areas, to Asperger’s syndrome and

high-functioning autism, to “normal” behaviour and perhaps

hypersocialization on the high end of the spectrum..

Rett syndrome
Rett syndrome (or Rett’s disorder) is a progressive neurological disorder

that is classified as a pervasive developmental disorder by the DSM-IV.
The symptoms of this disorder are easily confused with those of cerebral

palsy.

The clinical diagnosis specifies a small head and small hands and feet.
Stereotypical repetitive hand movements such as mouthing or wringing of

the hands are also included as diagnostic signs.
Symptoms of the disease include learning disorders and a total inability to

socialize.
Girls with Rett syndrome are very prone to seizures and gastrointestinal

disorders.
They typically have no verbal skills, and about 50% of females are

ambulatory.
Rett syndrome (symbolized RTT) is X-linked dominant, affecting almost

exclusively girls.
Development is normal until 6-18 months, when language and motor

milestones regress, purposeful hand use is lost and acquired microcephaly

is seen.
Hand-wringing and sighing are characteristic, and those affected develop

autistic behavior..

Sex linkage

Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele that is dependent on

the gender of the individual and is directly tied to the sex chromosomes.
In such cases there is a homogametic sex and a heterogametic sex.
In mammals the homogametic sex is female (XX) and the heterogametic

sex is male (XY), thus the sex linked genes are carried on the X

chromosome.
In birds and in some insects the homogametic sex is male.
In regards to ducks, a drake has ZZ chromosomes, with females ZW,

sex-linked any recessive sex-linked genes are at least in part on the Z

chromosome, and “male” and “female” are exchanged for humans..

Pyromania

Pyromania is an obsession with fire and starting fires, in an intentional

fashion, usually on multiple occasions.
It should be contrasted with other acts of arson.
To qualify as true pyromania, the fire must not be done for personal gain,

monetary or otherwise, or as an act of revenge or psychotic episode..

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Diabetes mellitus type 2 (formerly called diabetes mellitus type II,

non-insulin-dependent diabetes, NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes) is a

long-term metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin

resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia..

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Skin grafting is a type of organ transplant involving the transplantation of skin.
The transplanted tissue is called a skin graft..
Breast reconstruction
Breast reconstruction is the rebuilding of a breast, usually in women.
It involves using autologous tissue or prosthetic material to construct a natural-looking breast..
Face transplant
A face transplant is a skin graft that involves replacing part or all of a patient’s face with a donor face.
The world’s first full-face replant operation was on a nine year-old girl, whose face was ripped off when her hair was caught in a thresher.
The grass-cutting machine amputated her face and scalp.
The machine caught one of the girl’s braids and then pulled her head in.
Her mother witnessed the accident.
The patient arrived at the hospital unconscious with her face in two pieces in a plastic bag.
The operation was successful, although the child was left with some muscle damage as well as scarring around the perimeter where the facial skin was sutured back on.
The world’s first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out on November 27, 2005 by a team of surgeons led by Professor Jean-Michel Dubernard and Professor Bernard Devauchelle in Amiens, France.
The patient underwent surgery to replace her original face that had been ravaged by her dog.
A triangle of face tissue from a brain-dead human’s nose and mouth was grafted onto the patient..
Transplant rejection
Transplant rejection occurs when the immune system of the recipient of an transplant attacks the transplanted organ or tissue.
This is because a normal healthy human immune system can distinguish foreign tissues and attempts to destroy them, just as it attempts to destroy infective organisms such as bacteria and viruses..
Plastic surgery
Plastic surgery is a general term for operative manual and instrumental treatment which is performed for functional or aesthetic reasons.
The principal areas of plastic surgery include two broad fields.
Reconstructive surgery, including microsurgery, focuses on undoing or masking the destructive effects of trauma, surgery or disease.
Cosmetic (or aesthetic) surgery is most often performed in order to change features the patient finds unflattering..

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Circadian rhythm sleep disorders are a family of sleep disorders affecting the timing of sleep.
People with circadian rhythm sleep disorders are unable to sleep and wake at the times required for normal work, school, and social needs.
They are generally able to get enough sleep if allowed to sleep and wake at the times dictated by their body clocks.
Unless they have another sleep disorder, their sleep is of normal quality.
Humans have biological rhythms, known as circadian rhythms, which are controlled by a biological clock and work on a daily time scale.
Due to the circadian clock, sleepiness does not continuously increase as time passes.
Instead, the drive for sleep follows a cycle, and the body is ready for sleep and for wakefulness at different times of the day..
Circadian rhythm
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings, including plants, animals, fungi and cyanobacteria. In a strict sense, circadian rhythms are endogenously generated, although they can be modulated by external cues such as sunlight and temperature.
Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings.
There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle..
Jet lag
Jet lag (aka “jetlag” or “jet-lag”), is a physiological condition which is a consequence of alterations to the circadian rhythm.
Such alterations result from shift work, transmeridian travel, or altered day length.
They are known as desynchronosis, dysrhythmia, dyschrony, jet lag, or jet syndrome..

Delayed sleep phase syndrome
Delayed sleep-phase syndrome (DSPS) is a chronic disorder of sleep timing.
People with DSPS tend to fall asleep at very late times, and also have difficulty waking up in time for school or work which begins in the morning.
Often, DSP individuals report that they cannot sleep until early morning.
Unlike insomniacs, however, they fall asleep at about the same time every night, no matter what time they go to bed.
People with DSPS have at least a normal – and often much greater than normal – ability to sleep during the morning, and sometimes in the afternoon as well.
In contrast, those with chronic insomnia do not find it much easier to sleep during the morning than at night..
Insomnia
Insomnia is characterized by an inability to sleep and/or to be incapable of remaining asleep for a reasonable period.
Insomniacs typically complain of being unable to close their eyes or “rest their mind” for more than a few minutes at a time.
Both organic and nonorganic insomnia constitute a sleep disorder.
It is often caused by fear, stress, anxiety, medications, herbs or even caffeine.
An overactive mind or physical pain may also be causes.
Finding the underlying cause of insomnia is usually necessary to cure it..

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Vaccination is the process of administering weakened or dead pathogens to a healthy person or animal, with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent.
It succeeded and is distinct from inoculation.
In common speech, ‘vaccination’ and ‘immunization’ generally have the same colloquial meaning.
Vaccination efforts have been met with some resistance since its inception.
Early success and compulsion brought widespread acceptance and mass vaccination campaigns were undertaken which have greatly reduced the incidence of many diseases in many areas.
The eradication of smallpox, which was last seen in a natural case in 1977, is considered the most spectacular success of vaccination.
Some people assert that childhood vaccination plays a role in autoimmune disease and autism though large-scale scientific studies have not shown a link.
Some major contemporary research in vaccination focuses on development of vaccinations for diseases including HIV and malaria..

MMR vaccine
The MMR vaccine is a mixture of live attenuated viruses, administered via injection for immunization against measles, mumps and rubella.
It is generally administered to children around the age of one year, with a booster dose before starting school (i.e.
age 4/5).
It is widely used around the world; since introduction of its earliest versions in the 1970s, over 500 million doses have been used in over 60 countries.
As with all vaccinations, long-term effects and efficacy are subject to continuing study.
Before the widespread use of a vaccine against measles, its incidence was so high that patients born before 1949 are assumed to have had measles.
Today the incidence of measles has fallen to less than one percent of people under the age of 30 in countries with routine childhood vaccination.
Measles has a significant complication rate, which includes pneumonitis and encephalitis.
There are a number of adverse effects listed in the product documentation for the MMR vaccine..
Flu vaccine
The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus.
The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.
Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation usually only works for about a year..
HPV vaccine
Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine research focuses on the prevention of diseases, such as cervical cancer and genital warts, caused by sexually transmitted human papillomaviruses.
Of the more than 120 known HPV types, 37 are known to be transmitted through sexual contact.
Infection with sexually transmitted HPVs is very common in adult populations worldwide.
Although a few HPVs, such as types 6 and 11, can cause genital warts, most genital HPV infections come and go without ever causing any symptoms.
However, lingering infections with a subset of about 19 “high-risk” HPV types can lead to the development of cervical cancer or other genital/anal cancers..
Chickenpox
Chickenpox, also spelled chicken pox, is the common name for varicella simplex, classically one of the childhood infectious diseases caught and survived by most children.
Chickenpox is caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), also known as human herpes virus 3 (HHV-3), one of the eight herpes viruses known to affect humans..

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Medical researchers believe that stem cell treatments have the potential to change the face of human disease and alleviate suffering.
A number of current stem cell treatments already exists, although they are not commonly used because they tend to be experimental and not very cost-effective.
In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat cancer, spinal cord injuries, and muscle damage, amongst a number of other diseases and impairments..
Embryonic stem cell
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a human embryo.
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e.
differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so..
Bone marrow transplant
Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a medical procedure in the field of hematology and oncology that involves transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC).
It is most often performed for people with diseases of the blood or bone marrow, or certain types of cancer..
Natural killer cell
Natural killer cells (also known as NK cells, K cells, and killer cells) are a type of lymphocyte (a white blood cell) and a component of innate immune system.
NK cells play a major role in the host-rejection of both tumours and virally infected cells.
NK cells are cytotoxic; small granules in their cytoplasm contain special proteins such as perforin and proteases known as granzymes.
Upon release in close proximity to a cell slated for killing, perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell through which the granzymes and associated molecules can enter, inducing apoptosis.
The distinction between apoptosis and cell lysis is important in immunology – lysing a virus-infected cell would only release the virions, whereas apoptosis leads to destruction of the virus inside. NK cells are activated in response to interferons or macrophage-derived cytokines.
They serve to contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response is generating antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that can clear the infection.
Patients deficient in NK cells prove to be highly susceptible to early phases of herpes virus infection..
Metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from its primary site to other places in the body (e.g., brain, liver).
Cancer cells can break away from a primary tumor, penetrate into lymphatic and blood vessels, circulate through the bloodstream, and grow in a distant focus (metastasize) in normal tissues elsewhere in the body..

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Sports medicine or sport medicine is an interdisciplinary subspecialty of medicine which deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, both amateur and professional.
The sports medicine “team:” includes specialty physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches, other personnel, and, of course, the athlete.
Sports medicine has always been difficult to define because it is not a single specialty, but an area that involves health care professionals, researchers and educators from a wide variety of disciplines.
Its function is not only curative and rehabilitative, but also preventative, which may actually be the most important one of all..
Sports medicine
Sports medicine or sport medicine is an interdisciplinary subspecialty of medicine which deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, both amateur and professional.
The sports medicine “team:” includes specialty physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches, other personnel, and, of course, the athlete.
Sports medicine has always been difficult to define because it is not a single specialty, but an area that involves health care professionals, researchers and educators from a wide variety of disciplines.
Its function is not only curative and rehabilitative, but also preventative, which may actually be the most important one of all..

General fitness training
General fitness training works towards broad goals of overall health and well-being, rather than narrow goals of sport competition, larger muscles or concerns over appearance.
A regular moderate workout regimen and healthy diet can improve general appearance markers of good health such as muscle tone, healthy skin, hair and nails, while minimizing age or lifestyle-related reductions in health..

Functional training
Functional training is any type of exercise that has a direct relationship to the activities you perform in your daily life.
Whether you are a marathon runner, a triathlete, or simply a homemaker who wants to carry their children without injury, functional training can help. Functional training has its origins in rehabilitation.
Physical therapists developed exercises that mimicked what patients did at home or work in order to return to their lives or jobs after an injury or surgery.
Thus if a patient’s job required repeatedly heavy lifting, rehab would be targeted towards helping them achieve that. Functional training mostly involves activities targeted at the core muscles (abdominal and lower back)..
Health science
Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health.
There are two parts to health science: the study, research, and knowledge of health and the application of that knowledge to improve health, cure diseases, and understanding how humans and animals function..

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Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) also known as sexually transmissible diseases, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or (infrequently) venereal diseases (VD), are diseases or infections that have a significant probability of transmission between humans by means of sexual contact.
Depending on the STD, a person may or may not still be able to spread the infection if no signs of disease are present.
For example, a person is much more likely to spread herpes infection when blisters are present (STD) than when they are absent (STI).
However, a person can spread HIV infection (STI) at any time, even if he/she has not developed symptoms of AIDS (STD). All sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person should be considered to contain some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases..

Transmission (medicine)
In medicine, transmission is the passing of a disease from an infected individual or group to a previously uninfected individual or group.
In order to survive, microorganisms that require human hosts must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another.
Infectious agents are generally specialised for a particular method of transmission.
Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective a virus or bacteria that causes its host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms has a great survival advantage – it is much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another.
This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.
Microorganisms vary widely in the length of time that they can survive outside the human body, and so vary in how they are transmitted..
Trichomoniasis
Trichomoniasis, sometimes referred to as “trich” or the ping pong disease, is a common sexually transmitted disease that affects 2 to 3 million Americans yearly.
It is caused by a single-celled protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis..

Vulvovaginal health
Vulvovaginal health is the health and sanitation of the human female vulva and vagina..
Crab louse
Crab lice (singular, louse), scientific name Phthirus pubis and commonly called “crabs” due to their resemblance to the crab, are one of three kinds of human lice in the large group of lice families, the others being head lice and body lice, which live in clothing..

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Menopause

Menopause (also known as the “Change of life” or climacteric) is a stage of the human female reproductive cycle that occurs as the ovaries stop producing estrogen, causing the reproductive system to gradually shut down.
As the body adapts to the changing levels of natural hormones, vasomotor symptoms such as hot flashes and palpitations appear..
Uterine fibroids
Uterine fibroids (leiomyomata, singular leiomyoma) are the most common neoplasm in females, and may affect about 25 % of white and 50% of black women during the reproductive years.
Fibroids may be removed simply by means of a hysterectomy, but much more favourably by a myomectomy or by uterine artery embolization, which preserve the uterus.
Fibroids, particularly when small, may be entirely asymptomatic.
Generally, symptoms relate to the location of the lesion and its size.
Important symptoms include abnormal gynecologic hemorrhage, pain, urinary frequency or retention, and in some cases, infertility.
During pregnancy they may be the cause of miscarriage, bleeding, premature labor, or interference with the position of the fetus.
Very few lesions are or become malignant.
Signs that a fibroid may be malignant are rapid growth or growth after menopause..
Hormone replacement therapy
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is a system of medical treatment for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women, based on the assumption that it may prevent discomfort and health problems caused by diminished circulating estrogen hormones.
The treatment involves a series of drugs designed to artificially boost hormone levels.
The main types of hormones involved are estrogens, progesterone or progestins, and sometimes testosterone..
Gynecologic hemorrhage
Gynecologic hemorrhage represents exessive bleeding of the female reproductive system..

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