Traditionally in medicine, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another.Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.

This sense of “biological vector” is the primary one in epidemiology and in common speech. In gene therapy, a virus itself may serve as a vector, if it has been re-engineered and is used to deliver a gene to its target cell.

A “vector” in this sense is a vehicle for delivering genetic material such as DNA to a cell..

Pest (animal)

A pest is an animal which has characteristics which people regard as injurious or unwanted.

An example of serious pests are those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, or mosquitoes which vector malaria..

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary diseases in which a defective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one.

Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success.

Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.

In most gene therapy studies, a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to replace an “abnormal,” disease-causing gene.

A carrier called a vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells.

Currently, the most common type of vectors are viruses that have been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA.

Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner.

Scientists have tried to harness this ability by manipulating the viral genome to remove disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic ones. Target cells such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the vector.

The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell.

The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal state. In theory it is possible to transform either somatic cells (most cells of the body) or cells of the germline (such as sperm cells, ova, and their stem cell precursors).

All gene therapy to date on humans has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains controversial.

For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the chromosomes by genetic recombination. Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ex vivo, which means exterior (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and in vivo, which means interior (where genes are changed in cells still in the body).

Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most DNA constructs recombination has a very low probability..

Genetically modified organism

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology.

Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule..

Phytopathology

Phytopathology or plant pathology is the science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.

It covers all infectious agents that attack plants and abiotic disorders, but does not include herbivory by insects, mammals, etc.

Approximately ten percent of food production is lost to disease worldwide..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A prion (short for proteinaceous infectious particle) is a unique type of infectious agent, as it is made only of protein.It is now commonly accepted that prions are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases generally classified under transmissible spongiform encephalopathy diseases (TSEs), including scrapie (a disease of sheep), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), Chronic Wasting Disease, Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI), Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS), and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease)..

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs, also known as prion diseases) are a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous system of humans and animals and are transmitted by prions..

Amyloid

Amyloid describes various types of protein aggregations that share specific traits when examined microscopically.

For a period, the scientific community debated whether or not amyloid deposits were fatty deposits or carbohydrate deposits until it was finally resolved that it was neither, but rather a deposition of proteinaceous mass..

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of cattle.

BSE has attracted wide attention because it seems that people can contract the disease..

Encephalopathy

Encephalopathy is a nonspecific term describing a syndrome affecting the brain.

Generally, it refers to involvement of large parts of the brain (or the whole organ), instead of identifiable changes confined to parts of the brain.

Encephalopathy may refer to the clinical findings: altered mental state without focal findings; or, more generally, it may refer to the pathophysiology that causes these findings..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye).Microorganisms are often illustrated using single-celled, or unicellular organisms; however, some unicellular protists are visible to the naked eye, and some multicellular species are microscopic..

Prokaryote

Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell nucleus, or indeed any other membrane-bound organelles, in most cases unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular).

This set of characteristics is distinct from eukaryotes (also spelled “eucaryotes”), organisms that have cell nuclei and may be variously unicellular or multicellular..

Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes (organisms whose cells have nuclei) that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals, most notably mobility and heterotrophy.

They are often grouped in the kingdom Protista together with the plant-like algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds.

In some newer schemes, however, most algae are classified in the kingdoms Plantae and Chromista, and in such cases the remaining forms may be classified as a kingdom Protozoa.

The name is misleading, since they are not animals (with the possible exception of the Myxozoa).

Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of locomotion.

Most protozoans are too small to be seen with the naked eye – most are around 0.01-0.05 mm, although forms up to 0.5 mm are still fairly common – but can easily be found under a microscope..

Organelle

In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

Eukaryotes are the most structurally complex known cell type, and by definition are in part organized by smaller interior compartments, that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane.

The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with moderate magnification (although sometimes a clear view requires the application of chemicals that selectively stain parts of the cells); they were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope..

Yeast

Yeasts constitute a group of single-celled (unicellular) fungi, a few species of which are commonly used to leaven bread, ferment alcoholic beverages, and even drive experimental fuel cells.

Most yeasts belong to the division Ascomycota.

A few yeasts, such as Candida albicans, can cause infection in humans..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the naked eye). Microorganisms are often illustrated using single-celled, or unicellular organisms; however, some unicellular protists are visible to the naked eye, and some multicellular species are microscopic..

Prokaryote

Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell nucleus, or indeed any other membrane-bound organelles, in most cases unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular).

This set of characteristics is distinct from eukaryotes (also spelled “eucaryotes”), organisms that have cell nuclei and may be variously unicellular or multicellular..

Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes (organisms whose cells have nuclei) that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals, most notably mobility and heterotrophy.

They are often grouped in the kingdom Protista together with the plant-like algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds.

In some newer schemes, however, most algae are classified in the kingdoms Plantae and Chromista, and in such cases the remaining forms may be classified as a kingdom Protozoa.

The name is misleading, since they are not animals (with the possible exception of the Myxozoa).

Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of locomotion.

Most protozoans are too small to be seen with the naked eye – most are around 0.01-0.05 mm, although forms up to 0.5 mm are still fairly common – but can easily be found under a microscope..

Yeast

Yeasts constitute a group of single-celled (unicellular) fungi, a few species of which are commonly used to leaven bread, ferment alcoholic beverages, and even drive experimental fuel cells.

Most yeasts belong to the division Ascomycota.

A few yeasts, such as Candida albicans, can cause infection in humans..

Organelle

In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

Eukaryotes are the most structurally complex known cell type, and by definition are in part organized by smaller interior compartments, that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane.

The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with moderate magnification (although sometimes a clear view requires the application of chemicals that selectively stain parts of the cells); they were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A fungus (plural fungi) is a eukaryotic organism that digests its food externally and absorbs the nutrient molecules into its cells.Fungi are very important economically: yeasts are responsible for fermentation of beer and bread, and mushroom farming is a large industry in many countries.

Fungi are the primary decomposers of dead plant and animal matter in many ecosystems, and are commonly seen on old bread as mold..

Yeast

Yeasts constitute a group of single-celled (unicellular) fungi, a few species of which are commonly used to leaven bread, ferment alcoholic beverages, and even drive experimental fuel cells.

Most yeasts belong to the division Ascomycota.

A few yeasts, such as Candida albicans, can cause infection in humans..

Chytridiomycota

Chytridiomycota is a division of the Fungi kingdom.

Some chytrid species are known to kill frogs in large numbers by blocking the frogs’ respiratory skins; the infection is referred to as chytridomycosis..

Spore

In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersion and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions.

Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and some protozoans. Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporophyte.

Once conditions are favorable, the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which will eventually go on to produce gametes.

Two gametes fuse to create a new sporophyte.

This cycle is known as alternation of generations.

Haploid spores produced by mitosis (known as mitospores) are used by many fungi for asexual reproduction..

Mold

Molds, or mould, are various fungi that cover surfaces as fluffy mycelia and usually produce masses of asexual, or sometimes sexual, spores.

Mold is a growth of minute fungi forming on vegetable or animal matter, commonly as a downy or furry coating and associated with decay or dampness.

They are genetically similar to yeasts.

There are thousands of known varieties of molds.

Their primary energy source is organic matter which is broken down by enzymes released from the mycelia (the mass of hyphae) into simpler compounds.

By decomposing organic matter, molds play a big part in material biodegradation, enabling decay and rot necessary in all ecosystems.

The enzymes and mycotoxins can also inhibit the growth of other molds and microorganisms.

Some mycotoxins are considered to be harmful to health.

Adequate humidity and temperature are needed for optimal growth.

Molds do not use photosynthesis to receive energy..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Escherichia coli, usually abbreviated to E.coli, is one of the main species of bacteria that live in the lower intestines of warm-blooded animals, including birds and mammals.

They are necessary for the proper digestion of food and are part of the intestinal flora.

Its presence in groundwater is a common indicator of fecal contamination..

Foodborne illness

Foodborne illness or food poisoning is caused by consuming food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, toxins, viruses, prions or parasites.

Such contamination usually arises from improper handling, preparation or storage of food.

Foodborne illness can also be caused by adding pesticides or medicines to food, or by accidentally consuming naturally poisonous substances.

Contact between food and pests, especially flies, rodents and cockroaches, is a further cause of contamination of food..

Bacterial meningitis

Bacterial meningitis is a condition in which the dural layers lining the brain (the meninges) have become inflamed.

The classic symptoms of bacterial meningitis are similar to those of other forms of meningitis, including fever, headache, light sensitivity (photophobia), and confusion..

Pathogen

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.

The term is most often used for agents that disrupt the normal physiology of a multicellular animal or plant.

However, pathogens can infect unicellular organisms from all of the biological kingdoms.

There are several substrates and pathways whereby pathogens can invade a host.

The human body contains many natural defenses against some of common pathogens in the form of the human immune system and by some “helpful” bacteria present in the human body’s normal flora.

Some pathogens have been found to be responsible for massive amounts of casualties and have had numerous effects on afflicted groups.

Today, while many medical advances have been made to safeguard against infection by pathogens, through the use of vaccination, antibiotics and fungicide, pathogens continue to threaten human life.

Social advances such as food safety, hygiene, and water treatment have reduced the threat from some pathogens..

Bacteria

Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are a major group of living organisms.

Most are microscopic and unicellular, with a relatively simple cell structure lacking a cell nucleus, and organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.Bacteria are the most abundant of all organisms.

Many pathogens, disease-causing organisms, are bacteria..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annual, and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers.The purpose usually relates to either feeding or breeding; in some cases the reason for migration is still unknown.

Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and human dams must install fish ladders to enable the salmon to get past..

Atlantic salmon

Atlantic salmon is a fish species of the Salmonidae family found in the northern Atlantic Ocean and in rivers that flow into the Atlantic.

The Atlantic salmon follows an “anadromous” fish migration pattern.

Escape from commercial salmon farms in the northern Pacific have introduced the Atlantic salmon into the range of the Pacific species..

Coho salmon

The Coho salmon is a species of anadromous fish in the salmon family.

Coho is found in the North Pacific (Alaska, Kamchatka, Kuril Islands).

Coho salmon are also known as “silver salmon” or “silvers”..

Trout

Trout is the common name given to a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the salmon family, Salmonidae.

Trout are usually found in cool, clear streams and lakes..

Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture.

It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food.

A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species’ natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.

Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod and others.

Basically, there are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical production and intensive aquaculture, in which the fishes are fed with external food supply..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.Eukaryotes are the most structurally complex known cell type, and by definition are in part organized by smaller interior compartments, that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane.

The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with moderate magnification (although sometimes a clear view requires the application of chemicals that selectively stain parts of the cells); they were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope..

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the plant.

Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun to produce the free energy stored in ATP and NADPH through a process called photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts are one of the many unique cells in the body, and are generally considered to have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.

In this respect they are similar to mitochondria, but are found only in plants and protista.

Both organelles are surrounded by a double celled composite membrane with an intermembrane space; both have their own DNA and are involved in energy metabolism; and both have reticulations, or many infoldings, filling their inner spaces..

Cell membrane

A cell membrane, plasma membrane or plasmalemma is a selectively permeable lipid bilayer coated by proteins which comprises the outer layer of a cell.

The plasma membrane works between the machinery on the inside of the cell and the outside fluid that bathes the cells.

The plasma membrane lets nutrients into the cell such as glucose, amino acids, and lipids..

Prokaryote

Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell nucleus, or indeed any other membrane-bound organelles, in most cases unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular).

This set of characteristics is distinct from eukaryotes (also spelled “eucaryotes”), organisms that have cell nuclei and may be variously unicellular or multicellular..

Eukaryote

A eukaryote is an organism with a complex cell or cells, in which the genetic material is organized into a membrane-bound nucleus or nuclei.

Eukaryotes (also spelled “eucaryotes”) comprise animals, plants, and fungi—which are mostly multicellular – as well as various other groups that are collectively classified as protists (many of which are unicellular).

In contrast, prokaryotes are organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, that lack nuclei and other complex cell structures.

Eukaryotes share a common origin, and are often treated formally as a superkingdom, empire, or domain.

In the domain system, eukaryotes have more in common with archaean prokaryotes than bacterial prokaryotes..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Mammals, most other animals, and higher plants as well, have ways to minimize inbreeding.An inbred individual is likely to possess several physical and health defects, in addition to higher incidence of inheriting a poor trait..

Dog breed

A dog breed is a group of dogs that have very similar or nearly identical characteristics of appearance or behavior or, usually, both, primarily because they come from a select set of ancestors who had the same characteristics.

Dogs have been selectively bred for specific characteristics for thousands of years..

Heritability

In genetics, heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is due to genetic variation.

Variation among individuals may be due to genetic and/or environmental factors.

Heritability analyses estimate the relative importance of variation in each of these factors..

Mustang horse

A mustang is a hardy, free-roaming horse of the North American west, descended primarily from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish conquistadors.

Because of the image of the wild horse of the west as possessing hardiness, grace, speed, and independence, the name “Mustang” is popular for high-performance products and for sports mascots.

The Bureau of Land Management controls the mustang population through a capture program, intended to control competition with beef cattle.

Most horses that are captured are offered for “adoption” to individuals willing to pay a small fee to cover paperwork and a few basic costs.

In order to prevent the later sale of mustangs as horse meat, adopted mustangs are still protected under the Act, and cannot be sold except when certain very specific criteria are met.

There usually is a much larger pool of captured horses than of prospective adoptive owners..

Instinct

Instinct is the inherent disposition of a living organism toward a particular behavior.

Instincts are generally inherited patterns of responses or reactions to certain kinds of stimuli.

Instinctive behavior can be demonstrated across much of the broad spectrum of animal life..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Coral bleaching results when the symbiotic zooxanthellae (single-celled algae) are released from the original host coral organism due to stress.The corals that form the structure of the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend on these symbiotic photosynthesizing unicellular algae called “zooxanthellae” that live within their tissues.

When the zooxantheallae are expelled, the coral loses its pigment, leading to a bleached or completely white appearance.

Toxins are produced when water temperatures rise..

Coral bleaching

Coral bleaching results when the symbiotic zooxanthellae (single-celled algae) are released from the original host coral organism due to stress.

The corals that form the structure of the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend on these symbiotic photosynthesizing unicellular algae called “zooxanthellae” that live within their tissues.

When the zooxantheallae are expelled, the coral loses its pigment, leading to a bleached or completely white appearance.

Toxins are produced when water temperatures rise..

Coral reef

A coral reef is a type of biotic reef that develops in tropical waters by the growth of coralline algae, hermatypic corals, and other marine organisms.

Coral reefs are typically massive biogenic formations of calcium carbonate (limestone) that is deposited within or around the bodies of the inhabitants of the reef as skeletal material.

This material gradually accumulates as debris and/or is knitted together by the continued growth of the attached forms living on the reef..

Southeast Asia coral reefs

Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world’s marine ecosystems.

They serve many functions, such as forming the core of livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials.

Bleaching is one significant threat to the corals..

Coral

Corals are marine animals from the class Anthozoa and exist as small sea anemone-like polyps, typically in colonies of many identical individuals.

The group includes the important reef builders that are found in tropical oceans, which secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton. A coral “head”, commonly perceived to be a single organism, is actually formed of thousands of individual but genetically identical polyps, each polyp only a few millimeters in diameter.

Over thousands of generations, the polyps lay down a skeleton that is characteristic of their species.

A head of coral grows by asexual reproduction of the individual polyps.

Corals also breed sexually by spawning, with corals of the same species releasing gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon. Although corals can catch plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles, these animals obtain most of their nutrients from symbiotic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae.

Consequently, most corals depend on sunlight and grow in clear and shallow water, typically at depths shallower than 60 m (200 ft).

These corals can be major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia.

Other corals do not have associated algae and can live in much deeper water, such as in the Atlantic, with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m.

Corals have also been found off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. While a coral head appears to be a single organism, it is actually a head of many individual, yet genetically identical, polyps.

The polyps are multicellular organisms that feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic plankton to small fish. Polyps are usually a few millimeters in diameter, and are formed by a layer of outer epithelium and inner jellylike tissue known as the mesoglea.

They are radially symmetrical with tentacles surrounding a central mouth, the only opening to the stomach or coelenteron, through which both food is ingested and waste expelled..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Traditionally in medicine, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another.Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.

This sense of “biological vector” is the primary one in epidemiology and in common speech. In gene therapy, a virus itself may serve as a vector, if it has been re-engineered and is used to deliver a gene to its target cell.

A “vector” in this sense is a vehicle for delivering genetic material such as DNA to a cell..

Pest (animal)

A pest is an animal which has characteristics which people regard as injurious or unwanted.

An example of serious pests are those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, or mosquitoes which vector malaria..

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary diseases in which a defective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one.

Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success.

Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.

In most gene therapy studies, a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to replace an “abnormal,” disease-causing gene.

A carrier called a vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells.

Currently, the most common type of vectors are viruses that have been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA.

Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner.

Scientists have tried to harness this ability by manipulating the viral genome to remove disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic ones. Target cells such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the vector.

The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell.

The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal state. In theory it is possible to transform either somatic cells (most cells of the body) or cells of the germline (such as sperm cells, ova, and their stem cell precursors).

All gene therapy to date on humans has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains controversial.

For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the chromosomes by genetic recombination. Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ex vivo, which means exterior (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and in vivo, which means interior (where genes are changed in cells still in the body).

Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most DNA constructs recombination has a very low probability..

Genetically modified organism

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology.

Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule..

Phytopathology

Phytopathology or plant pathology is the science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.

It covers all infectious agents that attack plants and abiotic disorders, but does not include herbivory by insects, mammals, etc.

Approximately ten percent of food production is lost to disease worldwide..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism.Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as “gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

Embryonic stem cell

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a human embryo.

Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e.

differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so..

Allele frequency

Allele frequency is a measure of the relative frequency of an allele on a genetic locus in a population.

Usually it is expressed as a proportion or a percentage.

In population genetics, allele frequencies show the genetic diversity of a species population or equivalently the richness of its gene pool.

The frequencies of all the alleles of a given gene often are graphed together as an allele frequency distribution histogram.

Population genetics studies the different “forces” that might lead to changes in the distribution and frequencies of alleles – in other words, to evolution.

Besides selection, these forces include genetic drift, mutation and migration..

Meiosis

In biology, meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four haploid cells often called gametes. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.

A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.

Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as mitosis or binary fission. During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in haploid cells called gametes.

Each gamete contains one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell.

These resultant haploid cells can fuse with other haploid cells of the opposite sex or mating type during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote.

Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization.

Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA.

In other words, meiosis and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation. Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes.

There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes..

Fertilisation

Fertilisation, also spelt fertilization (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy), is fusion of gametes to form a new organism of the same species.

In animals, the process involves a sperm fusing with an ovum, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo.

Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female in internal fertilisation, or outside in the case of external fertilisation. The entire process of development of new individuals is called procreation, the act of species reproduction..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Speciation refers to the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.There are three main ideas concerning the emergence of new species (Modes of Speciation), each based on the degree to which populations undergoing this process are geographically isolated from one another (allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation, parapatric speciation)..

Species

Aspecies is the basic unit of biodiversity.A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed in nature to produce a fertile offspring..

Genetic drift

Genetic drift is the term used in population genetics to refer to the statistical drift over time of gene frequencies in a population due to random sampling effects in the formation of successive generations.In a narrower sense, genetic drift refers to the expected population dynamics of neutral alleles (those defined as having no positive or negative impact on reproductive fitness), which are predicted to eventually become fixed at zero or 100% frequency in the absence of other mechanisms affecting allele distributions..

Natural selection

Natural selection is the phrase Charles Darwin used in 1859 for the process he proposed to explain the origin of species and their apparent adaptation to their environment.

Along with the rules of inheritance, discovered by Gregor Mendel at about the same time, natural selection provides the fundamental mechanistic foundations for modern evolutionary theory..

Unified neutral theory of biodiversity

The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography is a theory and the title of a monograph by ecologist Stephen Hubbell.

The theory aims to explain the diversity and relative abundance of species in ecological communities, although like other neutral theories of ecology, Hubbell’s theory assumes that the differences between members of an ecological community of trophically similar species are “neutral,” or irrelevant to their success.

Despite contradicting the principle of “survival of the fittest”, the theory has been applied successfully to many groups of species, including forest tree species, bacterial populations, moths, British birds, and vascular plants..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop.Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and “morphogenesis,” which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.

Embryology is a subfield, the study of organisms between the one-cell stage (generally, the zygote) and the end of the embryonic stage.

Embryology and developmental biology today deal with the various steps necessary for the correct and complete formation of the body of a living organism..

Neural development

The study of neural development draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and throughout life..

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism.

Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.

In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as “gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

Human biology

Human biology is an academic field of biology which focuses on humans; it is closely related to medicine, primate biology, and a number of other fields.

A human being is a multicellular eukaryote consisting of an estimated 100 trillion cells.

It should be noted that there is no consensus on the actual number of cells in the human body; estimates vary widely.

As a species, humans are primates and can be distinguished from other primates by their more highly evolved brains.

Even though humans are multicellular animals, many of the basic life processes of human cells are basically the same as in simple unicellular eukaryotes such as yeast and even prokaryotes..

Morphogenesis

Morphogenesis is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation.Morphogenesis is concerned with the shapes of tissues, organs and entire organisms and the positions of the various specialized cell types..

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The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms, and is sometimes called the “building block of life.” Some organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular, consisting of a single cell.Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular, (humans have an estimated 100 trillion cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm, a typical cell mass 1 nanogram).

The largest known cell is an ostrich egg.

Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary.

Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities.

There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic cells are usually found in multi-cellular organisms..

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism.

Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.

In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as “gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

Plant cell

There are three major classes of plant cells that can then differentiate to form the tissue structures of roots, stems, and leaves.

(The three distinct types of plant cells are classified according to the structure of their cell walls and features of their protoplast.

Plants will have a primary cell wall and sometimes a secondary wall as well.

These two major parts are what determines the function of each individual plant cell.) The tissue types are: Dermal tissue – the outer most covering of a plant; Vascular tissue – Responsible for transport of materials throughout the plant; Ground tissue – Performs photosynthesis, starch storage and structural support..

Organelle

In cell biology, an organelle is one of several structures with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

Eukaryotes are the most structurally complex known cell type, and by definition are in part organized by smaller interior compartments, that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane.

The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with moderate magnification (although sometimes a clear view requires the application of chemicals that selectively stain parts of the cells); they were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope..

Prokaryote

Prokaryotes are organisms without a cell nucleus, or indeed any other membrane-bound organelles, in most cases unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular).

This set of characteristics is distinct from eukaryotes (also spelled “eucaryotes”), organisms that have cell nuclei and may be variously unicellular or multicellular..

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism.

Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.

In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as “gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

In botany, deciduous plants, principally trees and shrubs, are those that lose all of their foliage for part of the year.In some cases, the foliage loss coincides with winter in temperate or polar climates, while others lose their leaves during the dry season in climates with seasonal variation in rainfall.

The converse of deciduous is evergreen; plants which are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous..

Tamarix

The genus Tamarix, known as tamarisk or (US) saltcedar, comprises about 50-60 species of deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small trees growing to 1-15 m in height and forming dense thickets, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa.Saltcedar disrupts the structure and stability of native plant communities and degrades native wildlife habitat by outcompeting and replacing native plant species..

Forest

A forest is an area with a high density of trees (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for hunting).

These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as animal habitats, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth’s biosphere.

Although often thought of as as carbon dioxide sinks, mature forests are approximately carbon neutral with only disturbed and young forests acting as carbon sinks.

Nonetheless mature forests do play an important role in the global carbon cycle as stable carbon pools, and clearance of forests leads to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels..

Conifers

The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae.They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue; all extant conifers are woody plants, the great majority being trees with just a few being shrubs.

Typical examples of conifers include cedars, cypresses, douglas-firs, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found growing naturally in almost all parts of the world, and are frequently dominant plants in their habitats, as in the taiga, for example.

Conifers are of immense economic value, primarily for timber and paper production; the wood of conifers is known as softwood..

Blueberry

Blueberries are a group of flowering plants in the genus Vaccinium, sect.The species are native to North America and eastern Asia.

They are shrubs varying in size from 10 cm tall to 4 m tall; the smaller species are known as “lowbush blueberries”, and the larger species as “highbush blueberries”..

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Biopharmaceuticals are medical drugs produced using biotechnology.They are proteins (including antibodies), nucleic acids (DNA, RNA or antisense oligonucleotides) used for therapeutic or in vivo diagnostic purposes, and are produced by means other than direct extraction from a native (non-engineered) biological source.

The first such substance approved for therapeutic use was recombinant human insulin.

The large majority of biopharmaceutical products are pharmaceuticals that are derived from life forms.

A potentially controversial method of producing biopharmaceuticals involves transgenic organisms, particularly plants and animals that have been genetically modified to produce drugs..

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is generally taken to mean any cell forming the body of an organism.Somatic cells, by definition, are not germline cells.

In mammals, germline cells are the sperm and ova (also known as “gametes”) which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, from which the entire mammalian embryo develops.

Every other cell type in the mammalian body, apart from the sperm and ova, the cells from which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cells, is a somatic cell; internal organs skin, bones, blood and connective tissue are all made up of somatic cells..

Embryonic stem cell

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are stem cells derived from the undifferentiated inner mass cells of a human embryo.Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they are able to grow (i.e.

differentiate) into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.

In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body as long as they are specified to do so..

Allele frequency

Allele frequency is a measure of the relative frequency of an allele on a genetic locus in a population.Usually it is expressed as a proportion or a percentage.

In population genetics, allele frequencies show the genetic diversity of a species population or equivalently the richness of its gene pool.

The frequencies of all the alleles of a given gene often are graphed together as an allele frequency distribution histogram.

Population genetics studies the different “forces” that might lead to changes in the distribution and frequencies of alleles – in other words, to evolution.

Besides selection, these forces include genetic drift, mutation and migration..

Meiosis

In biology, meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four haploid cells often called gametes. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.

A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.

Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as mitosis or binary fission. During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in haploid cells called gametes.

Each gamete contains one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell.

These resultant haploid cells can fuse with other haploid cells of the opposite sex or mating type during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote.

Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization.

Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA.

In other words, meiosis and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation. Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes.

There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes..

Fertilisation

Fertilisation, also spelt fertilization (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy), is fusion of gametes to form a new organism of the same species.

In animals, the process involves a sperm fusing with an ovum, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo.

Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female in internal fertilisation, or outside in the case of external fertilisation. The entire process of development of new individuals is called procreation, the act of species reproduction..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Human biology is an academic field of biology which focuses on humans; it is closely related to medicine, primate biology, and a number of other fields.

A human being is a multicellular eukaryote consisting of an estimated 100 trillion cells.

It should be noted that there is no consensus on the actual number of cells in the human body; estimates vary widely.

As a species, humans are primates and can be distinguished from other primates by their more highly evolved brains.

Even though humans are multicellular animals, many of the basic life processes of human cells are basically the same as in simple unicellular eukaryotes such as yeast and even prokaryotes..

Biological tissue

Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism.The study of tissue is known as histology, or, in connection with disease, histopathology. The classical tools for studying the tissues are the wax block, the tissue stain, and the optical microscope, though developments in electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and frozen sections have all added to the sum of knowledge in the last couple of decades..

Histology

Histology is the study of tissue sectioned as a thin slice, using a microtome.It can be described as microscopic anatomy.Histology is an essential tool of biology.

Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool of anatomical pathology since accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples..

Epithelium

In zootomy, epithelium is a tissue composed of a layer of cells.

Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside (e.g.

intestine) of organisms.

The outermost layer of our skin is composed of dead squamous epithelial cells, as are the mucous membranes lining the inside of mouths and body cavities.

Plant cell

There are three major classes of plant cells that can then differentiate to form the tissue structures of roots, stems, and leaves.

(The three distinct types of plant cells are classified according to the structure of their cell walls and features of their protoplast.

Plants will have a primary cell wall and sometimes a secondary wall as well.

These two major parts are what determines the function of each individual plant cell.) The tissue types are: Dermal tissue – the outer most covering of a plant; Vascular tissue – Responsible for transport of materials throughout the plant; Ground tissue – Performs photosynthesis, starch storage and structural support..

How internal organs form

In animal development, organogenesis is the process by which the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop into the internal organs of the organism.

The germ layers in organogenesis differ by three processes: folds, splits, and condensation.

Developing early during this stage in chordate animals are the neural tube and notochord.

Vertebrate animals all differ from the gastrula the same way.

Vertebrates develop a neural crest that differentiates into many structures, including some bones, muscles, and components of the peripheral nervous system.

The coelom of the body forms from a split of the mesoderm along the somite axis..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Traditionally in medicine, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another. Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.

This sense of “biological vector” is the primary one in epidemiology and in common speech. In gene therapy, a virus itself may serve as a vector, if it has been re-engineered and is used to deliver a gene to its target cell.

A “vector” in this sense is a vehicle for delivering genetic material such as DNA to a cell..

Pest (animal)

A pest is an animal which has characteristics which people regard as injurious or unwanted.An example of serious pests are those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, or mosquitoes which vector malaria..

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary diseases in which a defective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one.Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success.

Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.

In most gene therapy studies, a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to replace an “abnormal,” disease-causing gene.

A carrier called a vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells.

Currently, the most common type of vectors are viruses that have been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA.

Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner.

Scientists have tried to harness this ability by manipulating the viral genome to remove disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic ones. Target cells such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the vector.

The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell.

The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal state. In theory it is possible to transform either somatic cells (most cells of the body) or cells of the germline (such as sperm cells, ova, and their stem cell precursors).

All gene therapy to date on humans has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains controversial.

For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the chromosomes by genetic recombination. Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ex vivo, which means exterior (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and in vivo, which means interior (where genes are changed in cells still in the body).

Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most DNA constructs recombination has a very low probability..

Genetically modified organism

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology.Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule..

Phytopathology

Phytopathology or plant pathology is the science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.

It covers all infectious agents that attack plants and abiotic disorders, but does not include herbivory by insects, mammals, etc.

Approximately ten percent of food production is lost to disease worldwide..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Comparative psychology, taken in its most usual, broad sense, refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is synonymous with animal psychology, but although the latter would be a more accurate term, it is less often used..

Pigeon intelligence

Pigeons have featured in numerous experiments in comparative psychology, including experiments concerned with animal cognition, and as a result we have considerable knowledge of pigeon intelligence.
Pigeons can remember large numbers of individual images for a long time, e.g.

hundreds of images for periods of several years.

Pigeons can be taught relatively complex actions and response sequences, and can learn to make responses in different sequences..

Animal cognition

Animal cognition, or cognitive ethology, is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of non human animals.

It has developed out of comparative psychology, but has also been strongly influenced by the approach of ethology, behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology.

Much of what used to be considered under the title of animal intelligence is now thought of under this heading.

Animal language acquisition, attempting to discern or understand the degree to which animal cognistics can be revealed by linguistics-related study, has been controversial among cognitive linguists..

Separation anxiety disorder

Separation anxiety disorder (or simply separation anxiety) is a psychological condition in which an individual has excessive anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment. It is often seen in children when they first begin attending school, but can occur at all ages and in many situations..

Instinct

Instinct is the inherent disposition of a living organism toward a particular behavior.Instincts are generally inherited patterns of responses or reactions to certain kinds of stimuli.

Instinctive behavior can be demonstrated across much of the broad spectrum of animal life..

Passive-aggressive behavior

Passive-aggressive behavior refers to passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to authoritative instructions in interpersonal or occupational situations.Sometimes a method of dealing with stress or frustration, it results in the person attacking other people in subtle, indirect, and seemingly passive ways..

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The gut protozoans Giardia duodenalis and various species of Cryptosporidium are extremely contagious single-celled parasites liable to cause digestive disease in both humans and animals. Some species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia are important zooneses, as they occur in both animals and humans. Zooneses are diseases that may be transmitted between animals and people.

Inger Sofie Hamnes showed in her doctorate that parasites of the groups Cryptosporidium and Giardia are extremely widespread in domestic animals, wild deer species and the red fox in Norway. Genotyping of Giardia isolated from elk, wild reindeer and red foxes showed that Giardia duodenalis in these animals may potentially infect humans.

Hamnes studied the occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in calves, dogs, wild deer species (elk, wild reindeer, red deer, roe deer and Svalbard reindeer), piglets and red fox in Norway, by analysis of scats.

Her studies showed that Cryptosporidium is common among young dogs, calves and piglets and that the parasites also occur to a lesser extent in roe deer, elk, red deer and the red fox. Cryptosporidium was not found in wild reindeer or Svalbard reindeer.

Giardia was more common than Cryptosporidium in calves, and the occurrence of both parasites varied with the calves’ age, geographic occurrence, season, and the cleaning frequency of pens. Among wild deer species, Giardia was more common than Cryptosporidium, while roe deer and elk had the highest occurrences of both parasites.

The presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in dogs varied with age and geographic location. There was a higher occurrence of diarrhoea in piglets from litters that were infected by Cryptosporidium than in litters free of infection. The occurrence of both parasites was low in the red fox, however, the geographic distribution was extensive.

The results of these studies show that parasites of the groups Cryptosporidium and Giardia are widely distributed among both domestic and wild animals in Norway. Grazing animals may represent a source of transmission to man through drinking water, although people can also become infected through direct contact with infected animals.

Wildlife gardening

Wildlife gardening is a school of gardening that is aimed at creating an environment that is attractive to various forms of wildlife such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on.
A wildlife garden (or wild garden) will usually contain a variety of habitats..

Square foot gardening

Square Foot Gardening is a type of intensive gardening based on the idea that the wide rows in conventional home gardening are a waste of time and space, and that more quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less effort..

Organic gardening

Organic gardening is a form of gardening that uses substantial diversity in pest control to reduce the use of pesticides and tries to provide as much fertility with local sources of nutrients rather than purchased fertilizers..

Biological pest control

Biological control of pests and diseases is a method of controlling pests and diseases in agriculture that relies on natural predation rather than introduced chemicals..

Organic lawn management

Organic lawn management is the practice of establishing and caring for a garden lawn without the use of chemical inputs such as pesticides or artificial fertilisers.

The garden lawn is a place where we can walk, play and relax, and is especially important for children, providing them with space to run around and enjoy themselves..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Growth rings (or “tree rings” or “annular rings”) can be seen in a horizontal cross section cut through the trunk of a tree.
Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year, thus one ring usually marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree..

Petrified wood

Petrified wood is a type of fossil: it exists of fossil wood where all the organic materials have been replaced with minerals (most often a silicate, such as quartz), while retaining the original structure of the wood.
The petrifaction process has occurred underground, when wood became buried under sediment..

Mulch

In agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil, primarily to modify the effects of the local climate.

A wide variety of natural and synthetic materials are used..

Climate changes of 535 to 536

In the years 535 and 536, several remarkable aberrations in world climate took place.

The Byzantine historian Procopius recorded of 536, “during this year a most dread portent took place.

For the sun gave forth its light without brightness…

and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear.” Tree ring analysis by dendrochronologist Mike Baillie, of the Queen’s University of Belfast, shows abnormally little growth in Irish oak in 536 and another sharp drop in 542, after a partial recovery..

Moss

Mosses are small plants that are rarely taller than 2 inches (50 mm).
They typically grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Marine biology is the scientific study of the plants, animals, and other organisms that live in the ocean.Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy..

Marine conservation

Marine conservation, also known as marine resources conservation, is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas.

Marine conservation focusses on limiting human-caused damage to marine ecosystems, and on restoring damaged marine ecosystems.

Marine conservation also focusses on preserving vulnerable marine species..

Fish migration

Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annual, and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers.

The purpose usually relates to either feeding or breeding; in some cases the reason for migration is still unknown.

Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and human dams must install fish ladders to enable the salmon to get past..

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton refers to the autotrophic component of the plankton that drifts in the water column.

Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye.

Phytoplankton, like plants, obtain energy through a process called photosynthesis, and so must live in the well-lit surface layer of an ocean, sea, or lake.

Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton (and terrestrial plants) are responsible for much of the oxygen present in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (primary production) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and some freshwater food chains..

Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans, caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Between 1751 and 2004 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14.

In the natural carbon cycle, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) represents a balance of fluxes between the oceans, terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere.

Human activities such as land-use changes and the combustion of fossil fuels have led to a new flux of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Some of this has remained in the atmosphere (where it is responsible for the rise in atmospheric concentrations), some is believed to have been taken up by terrestrial plants, and some has been absorbed by the oceans.

Although this oceanic absorption will help ameliorate the climatic effects of anthropogenic emissions of CO2, it is believed that it will have negative consequences for oceanic calcifying organisms.

These use the calcite or aragonite polymorphs of calcium carbonate to construct cell coverings or skeletons.

Calcifiers span the food chain from autotrophs to heterotrophs and include organisms such as coccolithophores, corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans, and some mollusks, especially pteropods..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A forest is an area with a high density of trees (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for hunting).These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as animal habitats, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth’s biosphere.

Although often thought of as as carbon dioxide sinks, mature forests are approximately carbon neutral with only disturbed and young forests acting as carbon sinks.

Nonetheless mature forests do play an important role in the global carbon cycle as stable carbon pools, and clearance of forests leads to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels..

Savanna

A savanna or savannah is a grassland with widely spaced trees, and occurs in several types of biomes.

In savannas, grasses and trees are co-dominant vegetation types, with trees and grasses often alternating in dominance over time.

The herbaceous layer is usually a mixture of grasses and herbs with trees and shrubs scattered individually or in small clumps.

Savannas are frequently seen as a transitional zone, occurring between forest or woodland regions and grassland or desert regions.

Savannas are targets of regular fires.

Most savannas experience fire at least twice a decade and annual fires are common in many savanna types..

Old growth forest

Old growth forest, sometimes called late seral forest or ancient forest or primary forest is an area of forest that has attained great age and exhibits unique biological features.

Old growth forests typically contain large live trees, large dead trees (sometimes called “snags”), and large logs..

Taiga

Taiga is a biome characterized by coniferous forests.

Covering most of inland Alaska, Canada, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway, northern Kazakhstan and Russia (especially Siberia), as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States, the taiga is the world’s largest terrestrial biome.

In Canada, boreal forest is the term used to refer to the southern part of this biome, while “taiga” is used to describe the more barren northern areas south of the Arctic tree-line. Since North America and Eurasia were recently connected by the Bering land bridge, a number of animal and plant species (more animals than plants) were able to colonise both continents and are distributed throughout the taiga biome.

Others differ regionally, typically with each genus having several distinct species, each occupying different regions of the taiga.

Taigas also have some small-leaved deciduous trees like birch, alder, willow and aspen; mostly in areas escaping the most extreme winter cold.

However, the deciduous Larch is coping with the coldest winters on the northern hemisphere in eastern Siberia.

The southernmost part of the taiga also have trees like oak, maple and elm scattered among the conifers..

Slash and burn

Slash and burn (a specific practice that may be part of shifting cultivation or swidden-fallow agriculture) is an agricultural procedure widely used in forested areas.

Although it was practised historically in temperate regions, where it was termed assarting, it is most widely associated with tropical agriculture today.

Slash and burn is a specific functional element of certain farming practices, often shifting cultivation systems.

In some cases such as parts of Madagascar, slash and burn may have no cyclical aspects (e.g some slash and burn activities can render soils incapable of further yields for generations), or may be practiced on its own as a single cycle farming activity with no follow on cropping cycle.

Shifting cultivation normally implies the existence of a cropping cycle component, whereas slash-and-burn actions may or may not be followed by cropping.

Slash-and-burn agriculture is usually labeled as ecologically destructive, but it may be workable when practiced by small populations in large forests, where fields have sufficient time to recover before again being slashed, burned, and cultivated.

Tropical forests are habitats for extremely biologically diverse ecosystems, typically containing large numbers of endemic and endangered species which can be threatened by slash-and-burn actions..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A weed is an unwanted plant.The notion of “wanted” is of course entirely in the eye of the beholder.A weed in one situation might be a wildflower in another.In order to reduce weed growth, many weed control strategies have been developed..

Wildlife gardening

Wildlife gardening is a school of gardening that is aimed at creating an environment that is attractive to various forms of wildlife such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on.
A wildlife garden (or wild garden) will usually contain a variety of habitats..

Weed control

Weed control, a botanical component of pest control, stops weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants, sometimes livestocks, by using manual techniques including soil cultivation, mulching and herbicides..

Organic lawn management

Organic lawn management is the practice of establishing and caring for a garden lawn without the use of chemical inputs such as pesticides or artificial fertilisers.

The garden lawn is a place where we can walk, play and relax, and is especially important for children, providing them with space to run around and enjoy themselves..

Square foot gardening

Square Foot Gardening is a type of intensive gardening based on the idea that the wide rows in conventional home gardening are a waste of time and space, and that more quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less effort..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Deep sea fish is a term for fish that live below the photic zone of the ocean.Examples include the lanternfish, flashlight fish, cookie-cutter shark, bristlemouths, and anglerfish.

The fish of the deep sea are among the most elusive and unusual looking creatures on earth..

Fish migration

Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annual, and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers.

The purpose usually relates to either feeding or breeding; in some cases the reason for migration is still unknown.

Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and human dams must install fish ladders to enable the salmon to get past..

Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted to light energy.

Bioluminescence may be generated by symbiotic organisms carried within a larger organism.

It is generated by an enzyme-catalyzed chemoluminescence reaction, wherein the pigment luciferin is oxidised by the enzyme luciferase.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is involved in most instances.

The chemical reaction can occur either within or outside of the cell.

In bacteria, the expression of genes related to bioluminescence is controlled by an operon called the Lux operon. Ninety percent of deep-sea marine life is estimated to produce bioluminescence in one form or another.

Most marine light-emission belongs in the blue and green light spectrum, the wavelengths that can transmit through the seawater most easily.

However, certain loose jawed fish emit red and infrared light..

Tide pool

Tide pools (also tidal pools or rock pools) are rocky pools by the ocean that are filled with seawater.

Tide pools can either be small and shallow or large and deep.

The small ones are usually found far back on the shore and the large ones are found nearer to the ocean.

Tide pools are formed as a high tide comes in over a rocky shore..

Pollock

Pollock is the common term for either of the two species in the Pollachius genus.Both P.

pollachius and P.

virens are commonly referred to as pollock.

Other names for P.

pollachius include the Atlantic pollock, European pollock, lieu jaune, and pollack, while P.

virens is sometimes known as the coalfish (or coaley) or saithe..

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An extinction event (also extinction-level event, ELE) occurs when a large number of species die out in a relatively short period of time. Since life began on Earth, a number of major mass extinctions have greatly exceeded the background extinction rate present at other times.

Though there were undoubtedly mass extinctions in the Archean and Proterozoic, it is only during the Phanerozoic Eon that the biological invention of bones and shells has provided a sufficient fossil record from which to make a systematic study of extinction patterns..

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon.

The Mesozoic includes three geologic periods: from oldest to youngest, they are the Triassic, the Jurassic and the Cretaceous periods..

Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event

The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event was a period of massive extinction of species, about 65.5 million years ago.

It corresponds to the end of the Cretaceous Period and the beginning of the Tertiary Period..

Permian-Triassic extinction event

The Permian-Triassic (P-T or PT) extinction event, sometimes informally called the Great Dying, was an extinction event that occurred approximately 251.0 million years ago (mya), forming the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods.

It was the Earth’s most severe extinction event, with about 90 percent of all marine species and 70 percent of terrestrial vertebrate species going extinct..

Paleozoic

The Paleozoic Era is a major division of the geologic timescale, one of four geologic eras.

The Paleozoic includes six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest — the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.

It extended from roughly 542 MYA to roughly 251 MYA (ICS, 2004).

It follows the Precambrian Era and is followed by the Mesozoic Era..

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A weed is an unwanted plant.The notion of “wanted” is of course entirely in the eye of the beholder.A weed in one situation might be a wildflower in another.In order to reduce weed growth, many weed control strategies have been developed..

Wildlife gardening

Wildlife gardening is a school of gardening that is aimed at creating an environment that is attractive to various forms of wildlife such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on.

A wildlife garden (or wild garden) will usually contain a variety of habitats..

Weed control

Weed control, a botanical component of pest control, stops weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants, sometimes livestocks, by using manual techniques including soil cultivation, mulching and herbicides..

Organic lawn management

Organic lawn management is the practice of establishing and caring for a garden lawn without the use of chemical inputs such as pesticides or artificial fertilisers.

The garden lawn is a place where we can walk, play and relax, and is especially important for children, providing them with space to run around and enjoy themselves..

Square foot gardening

Square Foot Gardening is a type of intensive gardening based on the idea that the wide rows in conventional home gardening are a waste of time and space, and that more quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less effort..

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An endangered species is a population of an organism (usually a taxonomic species), which because it is either few in number or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters, leaving it at risk of becoming extinct.

Many countries have laws offering special protection to these species or their habitats: for example, forbidding hunting, restricting land development or creating preserves.

Only a few of the many endangered species actually make it to the official lists and obtain legal protection.

Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice. The greatest factor of concern is the rate at which species are becoming extinct within the last 150 years.

While species have evolved and become extinct on a regular basis for the last several hundred million years, the number of species becoming extinct since the Industrial Revolution has no precedent in biological history.

If this rate of extinction continues, or accelerates as now seems to be the case, the number of species becoming extinct in the next decade could number in the millions.

While most people readily relate to endangerment of large mammals or birdlife, some of the greatest ecological issues are the threats to stability of whole ecosystems if key species vanish at any level of the food chain..

Conservation status

The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species continuing to survive either in the present day or the future.

Many factors are taken into account when assessing the conservation status of a species: not simply the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on.

UCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system.

The system divides threatened species into three categories: Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), and Vulnerable (VU)..

Columbian White-tailed Deer

The Columbian white-tailed deer is one of 30 subspecies of the white-tailed deer in North America, and one of two subspecies found in Oregon, the other being the Idaho white-tailed deer..

Black-footed Ferret

TThe Black-footed Ferret is a small carnivorous North American mammal.

The Black-footed Ferret is the most endangered mammal in North America, according to the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)..

Wild Horse

The Wild Horse (Equus ferus) is a member of the Horse genus and was found in Europe and Asia.

The true wild horse is not merely a feral horse like the Mustang; a true wild horse is one that was never successfully domesticated.

Two species or subspecies (taxonomy is debated) of wild horses survived into modern times: The Tarpan or Eurasian Wild Horse (Equus ferus ferus), and the Przewalski’s Horse or Mongolian Wild Horse (classification disputed, either Equus ferus przewalskii or Equus przewalskii).

The Tarpan became extinct in 1875.

The Przewalski’s Horse is still found today, though it is an endangered species and for a time was considered extinct in the wild.

Roughly 1500 animals are protected in zoos around the world, and today, a small breeding population has been reintroduced in Mongolia.

As of 2005, a cooperative venture between the Zoological Society of London and Mongolian Scientists has resulted in a free-ranging population of 248 animals in the wild..

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Veterinary medicine is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals.Veterinary Science is vital to the study and protection of animal production practices, herd health and monitoring spread of widespread disease.

It requires the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge in multiple disciplines and uses technical skills towards disease prevention in both domestic and wild animals. Human health is protected by veterinary science working closely with many medical professionals by the careful monitoring of livestock health as well as its unique training in epidemiology and emerging zoonotic diseases worldwide. Veterinary medicine is informally as old as the human/animal bond but in recent years has expanded exponentially because of the availability of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic techniques for most species.

Animals nowadays often receive advanced medical, dental, and surgical care including insulin injections, root canals, hip replacements, cataract extractions, and pacemakers. Veterinarians assist in ensuring the quality, quantity, and security of food supplies by working to maintain the health of livestock and inspecting the meat itself.

Veterinary scientists are very important in chemical, biological, and pharmacological research..

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.

As such, it is a vital skill for farmers and, in some countries in many ways..

Dog breeding

Dog breeding is the vocation of mating carefully selected specimens of the same breed to reproduce specific, consistently replicable qualities and characteristics. The skilled breeder has at least general knowledge of genetics and health, and in-depth knowledge of the breed standard and conformation points of his chosen breed..

Spaying and neutering

Spaying and neutering are the respective surgical processes of female and male animal sterilization, to keep them from producing offspring.

Neutering is sometimes used to refer to the surgery in either males or females.

The process in males is also referred to as castration, or gelding..

Mange

Mange is an parasitic infestation of the skin of animals.

Common symptoms include hair loss and itching and inflammation, all of which are caused by microscopic mites.

Mange is most commonly found in dogs and other canines, but it can occur in other domestic and wild animals.

Also called demodicosis or Red Mange, demodectic mange in dogs is caused by an overpopulation of Demodex canis.

This is a mite that occurs naturally in the hair follicles of most dogs in low numbers around the face.

In most dogs, these mites never cause problems.

However, in certain situations, such as an impaired immune system, intense stress, or malnutrition, the mites can reproduce rapidly, causing symptoms that range from mild irritation and hair loss on a small patch of skin to severe and widespread inflammation, secondary infection, and – in rare cases – a life-threatening condition.

Small patches of demodicosis often correct themselves over time, although treatment is usually recommended..

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Spiders are predatory invertebrate animals with two body segments, eight legs, no chewing mouth parts and no wings.
They are classified in the order Araneae, one of several orders within the larger class of arachnids, a group which also contains scorpions, whip scorpions, mites, ticks, and opiliones (harvestmen).The study of spiders is known as arachnology.

All spiders produce silk, a thin, strong protein strand extruded by the spider from spinnerets most commonly found on the end of the abdomen.

Many species use it to trap insects in webs, although there are many species that hunt freely.

Silk can be used to aid in climbing, form smooth walls for burrows, build egg sacs, wrap prey, and temporarily hold sperm, among other applications..

Yellow sac spider

The Yellow sac spider (Cheiracanthium inclusum) is not a true sac spider but a long-legged sac spider.

It is one of a handful of spiders in North America whose bites are generally considered to be medically significant..

Hobo spider

The Hobo Spider (Tegenaria agrestis) is a member of the genus of spiders known colloquially as funnel web spiders.

The spider’s venom is strong enough to cause considerable local pain and also to cause tissue death (necrosis) at and near the bite..

Widow spider

The widow spiders are members of the spider genus Latrodectus, in the family Theridiidae.

Latrodectus includes approximately 31 recognized venomous species, with the black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) being the best known member of the group.

The female black widow’s venom is particularly harmful to humans (males almost never bite humans).

Spiders of the genus Steatoda (also of the Theridiidae family) are often mistaken for widow spiders, and are known as false widow spiders.

The false widow spiders are significantly less harmful to humans..

Necrosis

Necrosis is the name given to unprogrammed death of cells and living tissue.

It is less orderly than apoptosis, which are part of programmed cell death.

In contrast with apoptosis, cleanup of cell debris by phagocytes of the immune system is generally more difficult, as the disorderly death generally does not send cell signals which tell nearby phagocytes to engulf the dying cell.

This lack of signalling makes it harder for the immune system to locate and recycle dead cells which have died through necrosis than if the cell had undergone apoptosis.

The release of intracellular content after cellular membrane damage is the cause of inflammation in necrosis.

There are many causes of necrosis including injury, infection, cancer, infarction, toxins and inflammation.

Severe damage to one essential system in the cell leads to secondary damage to other systems, a so-called “cascade of effects”.

Necrosis can arise from lack of proper care to a wound site.

Necrosis is accompanied by the release of special enzymes, that are stored by lysosomes, which are capable of digesting cell components or the entire cell itself.

The injuries received by the cell may compromise the lysosome membrane, or may initiate an unorganized chain reaction which causes the release in enzymes.

Unlike in apoptosis, cells that die by necrosis may release harmful chemicals that damage other cells..

Brown recluse spider

The brown recluse spider is a venomous spider, Loxosceles reclusa.

It is usually between 1/4 and 3/4 inch (6.4-19.1mm) but may grow larger.

It is brown and usually has markings on the dorsal side of its thorax, with a black line coming from it that looks like a violin with the neck of the violin pointing to the rear of the spider resulting in the nickname “fiddleback spider” or “violin spider”..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing. Forty-percent of mammal species are rodents, and they are found in vast numbers on all continents other than Antarctica.Common rodents include mice, rats, squirrels, chipmunks, gophers, porcupines, beavers, hamsters, gerbils, and guinea pigs.

Rodents have sharp incisors that they use to gnaw wood, break into food, and bite predators.

Most eat seeds or plants, though some have more varied diets.

They have historically been pests, eating human seed stores and spreading disease. Rodents evolved some time around the end of the Cretaceous period c 65 million years ago. In terms of number of species — although not necessarily in terms of number of organisms (population) or biomass — rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40 percent of mammalian species belonging to the order.[1] Their success is probably due to their small size, short breeding cycle, and ability to gnaw and eat a wide variety of foods.(Lambert, 2000) There are about 2,277 species of rodents, about 42% of all mammal species.

Rodents are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica, most islands, and in all habitats except for oceans.

They are the only placental order other than bats (Chiroptera) and sea lions (Otariidae) to reach Australia without human introduction..

Brown Rat

The Brown Rat or Norway Rat is one of the best-known and common rats, and also one of the largest.
The Brown Rat is a true omnivore and will consume almost anything.

Brown Rats can carry a number of diseases..

House mouse

Mus musculus is the common house mouse.
This mouse is believed to be the second most populous mammalian species on Earth, after Homo sapiens.

House mice almost always live in close proximity of humans.

Laboratory mice are strains of house mice that form important model organisms in biology and medicine; they are the most commonly used laboratory mammal..

Lemming

Lemmings are small rodents, usually found in or near the Arctic.

Together with the voles and muskrats, they make up the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae), which forms part of the largest mammal radiation by far, the superfamily Muroidea, which also includes the rats, mice, hamsters, and gerbils. Lemmings mostly weigh 30 to 112 grams (1–4 oz) and are about 7 to 15 centimetres (2.75 – 6 in) long.

They usually have long, soft fur and very short tails.

They are herbivorous, feeding mostly on leaves and shoots, grasses, and sedges in particular, but also roots and bulbs in some cases.

Like many rodents’ teeth, their incisors grow continuously, allowing them to exist on much tougher forage than would otherwise be possible.

While many people believe that lemmings commit mass suicide when they migrate, this is not actually the case.

Lemmings will often migrate in large groups and as a result some lemmings will occasionally be pushed off cliffs or drowned in bodies of water simply by the press of their compatriots but such deaths are unintentional and incidental..

Mouse

A mouse is a mammal that belongs to one of numerous species of small rodents.

The best known mouse species is the common house mouse.

It is found in nearly all countries and, as the laboratory mouse, serves as an important model organism in biology; it is also a popular pet.

The American white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) also sometimes live in houses.

These species of mice live commensally with humans.

Although they may live up to two years in the lab, the average mouse in the wild lives only about 3 months, primarily due to heavy predation.

Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds-of-prey, snakes and even certain kinds of insects have been known to prey heavily upon mice.

Nevertheless, due to its incredible adaptability to almost any environment, and its ability to live commensally to humans, it is regarded to be the second most successful mammalian species living on earth today, after the rat.

Mice can be harmful pests, damaging and eating crops and spreading diseases through their parasites and feces.

The original motivation for the domestication of cats is thought to have been for their predation of mice and their relatives, the rats..

Pest (animal)

A pest is an animal which has characteristics which people regard as injurious or unwanted.

An example of serious pests are those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, or mosquitoes which vector malaria..

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The flying squirrels are a tribe of squirrel.There are 43 species in this tribe, the largest of which is the woolly flying squirrel. The term “flying” is somewhat of a misnomer, since flying squirrels are actually gliders incapable of true flight.

Gliding is achieved by this animal by launching off the tops of trees and extending flaps of skin stretched from arms to legs: once they have launched themselves into the air they are highly manuverable while in flight.

Steering is accomplished by adjusting tautness of the patagium, largely controlled by a small cartilaginous wrist bone.

The tail acts as a stabilizer in flight, much like the tail of a kite, and as an adjunct aerofoil when “braking” prior to landing on a tree trunk..

Vertebrate

Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata (within the phylum Chordata), specifically, those chordates with backbones or spinal columns.

About 57,739 species of vertebrates have been described.

Vertebrates started to evolve about 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion, which is part of the Cambrian period.

Their name derives from the bones of the spinal column (or vertebral column), the vertebrae.

Vertebrata is the largest subphylum of chordates, and contains many familiar groups of large land animals.

Fish (including lampreys, but traditionally not hagfish, though this is now disputed), amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (including humans) are vertebrates.

Characteristics of the subphylum are a muscular system that mostly consists of paired masses, as well as a central nervous system which is partly located inside the backbone (if one is present).

Usually, the defining characteristic of a vertebrate is considered the backbone or spinal cord, a brain case, and an internal skeleton, but the latter do not hold true for lampreys, and the former is arguably present in some other chordates.

Rather, all vertebrates are most easily distinguished from all other chordates by having an unequivocal head, that is, sensory organs – especially eyes are concentrated at the fore end of the body and there is pronounced cephalization..

Lemming

Lemmings are small rodents, usually found in or near the Arctic.

Together with the voles and muskrats, they make up the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae), which forms part of the largest mammal radiation by far, the superfamily Muroidea, which also includes the rats, mice, hamsters, and gerbils. Lemmings mostly weigh 30 to 112 grams (1–4 oz) and are about 7 to 15 centimetres (2.75 – 6 in) long.

They usually have long, soft fur and very short tails.

They are herbivorous, feeding mostly on leaves and shoots, grasses, and sedges in particular, but also roots and bulbs in some cases.

Like many rodents’ teeth, their incisors grow continuously, allowing them to exist on much tougher forage than would otherwise be possible.

While many people believe that lemmings commit mass suicide when they migrate, this is not actually the case.

Lemmings will often migrate in large groups and as a result some lemmings will occasionally be pushed off cliffs or drowned in bodies of water simply by the press of their compatriots but such deaths are unintentional and incidental..

Rodent

Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing. Forty-percent of mammal species are rodents, and they are found in vast numbers on all continents other than Antarctica.

Common rodents include mice, rats, squirrels, chipmunks, gophers, porcupines, beavers, hamsters, gerbils, and guinea pigs.

Rodents have sharp incisors that they use to gnaw wood, break into food, and bite predators.

Most eat seeds or plants, though some have more varied diets.

They have historically been pests, eating human seed stores and spreading disease. Rodents evolved some time around the end of the Cretaceous period c 65 million years ago. In terms of number of species — although not necessarily in terms of number of organisms (population) or biomass — rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40 percent of mammalian species belonging to the order.[1] Their success is probably due to their small size, short breeding cycle, and ability to gnaw and eat a wide variety of foods.(Lambert, 2000) There are about 2,277 species of rodents, about 42% of all mammal species.

Rodents are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica, most islands, and in all habitats except for oceans.

They are the only placental order other than bats (Chiroptera) and sea lions (Otariidae) to reach Australia without human introduction..

Chinchilla

Chinchillas and their relatives viscachas are small, nocturnal mammals native to the Andes mountains in South America and belonging to the family Chinchillidae.

Chinchilla fur is considered the softest in the world and is thirty times softer than human hair..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A monkey is any member of two of the three groupings of simian primates.These two groupings are the New World and Old World monkeys of which together there are nearly 200 species.A group of monkeys may be referred to as a mission of monkeys or a tribe of monkeys..

Sea-Monkey

Sea-Monkeys are a hybrid of Artemia salina, a species of brine shrimp.

These are a type of fairy shrimp — not true shrimp, but a branchiopod.

The term Sea-Monkeys (sometimes unhyphenated) is a trademark used to sell them as a novelty gift.

They originate in salt lakes and salt evaporation flats..

Howler monkey

The howler monkeys are among the largest of the New World monkeys.

As their name suggests, vocal animal communication forms an important part of their social behavior.

The large slow moving monkeys are the only folivores of the New World monkeys..

Primate

A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans.

Primates are found all over the world.

Non-human primates occur mostly in Central and South America, Africa, and southern Asia.

A few species exist as far north in the Americas as southern Mexico, and as far north in Asia as northern Japan.

The Primates order is divided informally into three main groupings: prosimians, monkeys of the New World, and monkeys and apes of the Old World.

All primates have five fingers (pentadactyly), a generalized dental pattern, and a primitive (unspecialized) body plan.

Another distinguishing feature of primates is fingernails.

Opposing thumbs are also a characteristic primate feature, but are not limited to this order; opossums, for example, also have opposing thumbs..

Capuchin monkey

The capuchins are the group of New World monkeys classified as genus Cebus.

Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal.

With the exception of a midday nap, they spend their entire day searching for food.

At night they sleep in the trees, wedged between branches.

They are undemanding regarding their habitat and can thus be found in many differing areas.

Among the natural enemies of the capuchins are large falcons, cats and snakes..

A monkey is any cercopithecoid (Old World monkey) or platyrrhine (New World monkey) primate. All primates that are not prosimians (lemurs and tarsiers) or apes are monkeys. The 264 known extant monkey species represent two of the three groupings of simian primates (the third group being the 21 species of apes). Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent and, unlike apes, monkeys usually have tails.

The New World monkeys are classified within the parvorder Platyrrhini, whereas the Old World monkeys (superfamily Cercopithecoidea) form part of the parvorder Catarrhini, which also includes the apes. Thus, scientifically speaking, monkeys are paraphyletic (not a single coherent group) and Old World monkeys are actually more closely related to the apes than they are to the New World monkeys.

Etymology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word “monkey” may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published circa 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape. The word Moneke may have been derived from the Italian monna, which means “a female ape”. The name Moneke likely persisted over time due to the popularity of Reynard the Fox.

The term ‘monkey’ is an artificial grouping; it is not a taxon (like “dog, for example, which is a subspecies C. l. familiaris), but instead it is a paraphyletic group, like “fish”. The term covers all platyrrhines (flat, broad noses) and some catarrhines (nostrils-downwards), but excludes the apes.[1]

A group of monkeys may be referred to as a mission or a tribe.
Characteristics
Bonnet Macaque in Nelliampathi mountains, Kerala, South India

Monkeys range in size from the Pygmy Marmoset, at 140 to 160 millimetres (5–6 in) long (plus tail) and 120 to 140 grams (4–5 oz) in weight, to the male Mandrill, almost 1 metre (3.3 ft) long and weighing 35 kilograms (77 lb). Some are arboreal (living in trees) while others live on the savanna; diets differ among the various species but may contain any of the following: fruit, leaves, seeds, nuts, flowers, eggs and small animals (including insects and spiders).

Some characteristics are shared among the groups; most New World monkeys have prehensile tails while Old World monkeys have non-prehensile tails or no visible tail at all. Some have trichromatic color vision like that of humans, others are dichromats or monochromats. Although both the New and Old World monkeys, like the apes, have forward facing eyes, the faces of Old World and New World monkeys look very different, though again, each group shares some features such as the types of noses, cheeks and rumps.

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

A mouse is a mammal that belongs to one of numerous species of small rodents.The best known mouse species is the common house mouse.It is found in nearly all countries and, as the laboratory mouse, serves as an important model organism in biology; it is also a popular pet.

The American white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) also sometimes live in houses.

These species of mice live commensally with humans.

Although they may live up to two years in the lab, the average mouse in the wild lives only about 3 months, primarily due to heavy predation.

Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds-of-prey, snakes and even certain kinds of insects have been known to prey heavily upon mice.

Nevertheless, due to its incredible adaptability to almost any environment, and its ability to live commensally to humans, it is regarded to be the second most successful mammalian species living on earth today, after the rat.

Mice can be harmful pests, damaging and eating crops and spreading diseases through their parasites and feces.

The original motivation for the domestication of cats is thought to have been for their predation of mice and their relatives, the rats..

House mouse

Mus musculus is the common house mouse.

This mouse is believed to be the second most populous mammalian species on Earth, after Homo sapiens.

House mice almost always live in close proximity of humans.

Laboratory mice are strains of house mice that form important model organisms in biology and medicine; they are the most commonly used laboratory mammal..

Lemming

Lemmings are small rodents, usually found in or near the Arctic.

Together with the voles and muskrats, they make up the subfamily Arvicolinae (also known as Microtinae), which forms part of the largest mammal radiation by far, the superfamily Muroidea, which also includes the rats, mice, hamsters, and gerbils. Lemmings mostly weigh 30 to 112 grams (1–4 oz) and are about 7 to 15 centimetres (2.75 – 6 in) long.

They usually have long, soft fur and very short tails.

They are herbivorous, feeding mostly on leaves and shoots, grasses, and sedges in particular, but also roots and bulbs in some cases.

Like many rodents’ teeth, their incisors grow continuously, allowing them to exist on much tougher forage than would otherwise be possible.

While many people believe that lemmings commit mass suicide when they migrate, this is not actually the case.

Lemmings will often migrate in large groups and as a result some lemmings will occasionally be pushed off cliffs or drowned in bodies of water simply by the press of their compatriots but such deaths are unintentional and incidental..

Brown Rat

The Brown Rat or Norway Rat is one of the best-known and common rats, and also one of the largest.

The Brown Rat is a true omnivore and will consume almost anything.

Brown Rats can carry a number of diseases..

Omnivore

An omnivore is an animal that eats both plants and meat.

Omnivores lack the specialist behaviour of carnivores and herbivores, searching widely for food sources, and are thus better able to withstand changes within their ecological niche..

“This article is brought to you by Gus Woltmann”.

Although the separation of Lepidopterans into “butterfly” and “moth” categories is a well-known distinction, the difference between a butterfly and a moth is not actually a standard taxonomic division..

Moth

A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly.

Moths, and more particularly their caterpillars, are a major agricultural pest in many parts of the world.

Moths are apparently attracted to light, or more specifically, are known to circle bright objects..

Pupa

A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation.

The pupal stage occurs only in holometabolic insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago.

In the life cycle of an insect the pupal stage follows the larval stage and precedes adulthood (imago). It is during the time of pupation, that the adult structures of the insect are formed whilst the larval structures are broken down.

Pupae are inactive, and usually sessile.

They have a hard protective coating and often use camouflage to evade potential predators.

A chrysalis or nympha is the pupal stage of butterflies..

Caterpillar

A caterpillar is the larva form of a lepidopteran (a member of the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).

Caterpillars have long segmented bodies and many sets of “legs”.

They eat leaves voraciously, grow rapidly, shed their skins generally four or five times, and eventually pupate into an adult form..

Butterflies, skippers and moths

The order Lepidoptera is the second largest order in the class Insecta and includes the butterflies, skippers, and moths.

This order has more than 180,000 species in 127 families and 46 superfamilies.

It is second only to the Coleoptera (the beetles) in number of described species.

Lepidopterans undergo complete metamorphosis going through a four-stage life cycle of egg – larva / caterpillar – pupa/chrysalis – imago/adult.

The larvae have a toughened head capsule, chewing mouthparts, and a soft body, that may have hair-like or other projections, 3 pairs of true legs, and additional prolegs (up to 5 pairs).

Most caterpillars are herbivores, but a few are carnivores (some eat ants or other caterpillars) and detritivores..

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The Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known as a race horse.While carefully bred racehorses had existed throughout Europe for centuries prior to this time, the breed as it is known today developed during the 17th century in England when English mares began to be bred to imported Arabian stallions.

This addition of verifiable Arabian blood coincided with the creation of the General Stud Book of England and the practice of official registering of horses.

Today all modern Thoroughbreds trace to these imported stallions.

The typical Thoroughbred stands just over 16 hands (64 inches/1.63 m) high, and is bay, brown, chestnut, black, gray or roan in color.

The face and lower legs may be marked with white, but white will generally not appear on the body (although certain color genes, possibly the rabicano or sabino genes, result in white hairs and white patches in the coat—the study of equine coat color genetics is complex)..

American Quarter Horse

The American Quarter Horse is a breed of horse originally bred for sprinting short distances, typically races of a quarter mile or less.

The Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and is the largest breed society in the world, with over 3.2 million Quarter Horses registered worldwide.

It is commonly believed to be the world’s fastest horse over short distances, and has been clocked at 55 mph.

The Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows and as a working ranch horse.

The compact body of the Quarter Horse is well-suited to the intricate and speedy maneuvers required in calf roping, reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle.

The versatile Quarter Horse is also shown in English disciplines, driving, and many other equestrian activities..

Palomino horse

Palomino is a coat color in horses, consisting of a gold coat and white or flaxen mane and tail.

Genetically, the palomino color is created by a dilution gene working on a red (chestnut) base coat.

While the breed standard states the ideal color is that of a “newly minted gold coin”, the coat color may range from a pale creme, almost-white color, to a deep, dark, chocolate color (”chocolate palomino”).

Skin and eyes are usually dark.

White markings are permitted on the legs, but must not extend beyond the knees or hocks.

White markings are also permitted on the face, but must not extend past the eyes.

Those with a chocolate colored coat may be confused with horses expressing the silver dapple gene..

Hinny

A hinny is the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey (jennet or jenny).

They are rarer than mules, which are the offspring of a male donkey (jackass or jack) and a female horse.

Like the mule, the hinny is almost always sterile.

Hinnies are similar to mules in that they are generally more intelligent than horses, and more cooperative than donkeys.

Both are also healthier and less expensive to feed and maintain than horses.

This is a trait these hybrids get from their donkey heritage.

Hinnies are on average slightly smaller than mules..

Morgan horse

The Morgan is one of the first horse breeds developed in the United States.

Tracing back to Figure, the breed excels in many disciplines, and is known for its versatility.

The Morgan is compact and refined in build, with strong limbs, an expressive face, large eyes, well-defined withers, laid back shoulders and a well arched neck.

There is officially one Breed Standard for Morgan type regardless of the discipline or bloodline of the individual horse.

The Morgan has influenced several other breeds, including the Standardbred, Tennessee Walker, American Quarter Horse, and the American Saddlebred.

Nearly 90% of Saddlebred horses today have Morgan blood..

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About 400 million years ago, some members of the sarcopterygian group of fish moved onto land.These became the first amphibians.Today, these animals still spend part of their lives in water and return to water for reproduction.

There are over 3,000 known species of modern amphibians, which includes Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (newts and salamanders), and Gymnophiona (burrowing amphibians)..

Digestion

Digestion is the process whereby a biological entity processes a substance, in order to chemically convert the substance into nutrients.

Digestion occurs at the multicellular, cellular, and sub-cellular levels.

Digestion usually involves mechanical manipulation and chemical action.

In most vertebrates, digestion is a multi-stage process in the digestive system, following ingestion of the raw materials, most often other organisms.

The process of ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical manipulation..

Gastrointestinal tract

The gastrointestinal tract or digestive tract, also referred to as the GI tract or the alimentary canal or the gut, is the system of organs within multicellular animals which takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste.

The GI tract differs substantially from animal to animal.

For instance, some animals have multi-chambered stomachs..

Amphibian

Amphibians generally spend part of their time on land, but they do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods (amniotes).

There are about 5,950 described, living species of amphibians.

The study of amphibians and reptiles is known as herpetology.

Dramatic declines in amphibian populations have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world..

Saliva

Saliva is the watery and usually somewhat frothy substance produced in the mouths of some animals, including humans.

Produced in salivary glands, saliva is 98% water, but it contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes.

The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily.

Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that breaks some starches down into maltose and dextrin.

Thus, digestion of food occurs within the mouth, even before food reaches the stomach..

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Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annual, and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers.The purpose usually relates to either feeding or breeding; in some cases the reason for migration is still unknown.Salmon are capable of going hundreds of kilometers upriver, and human dams must install fish ladders to enable the salmon to get past..

Atlantic salmon

Atlantic salmon is a fish species of the Salmonidae family found in the northern Atlantic Ocean and in rivers that flow into the Atlantic.

The Atlantic salmon follows an “anadromous” fish migration pattern.

Escape from commercial salmon farms in the northern Pacific have introduced the Atlantic salmon into the range of the Pacific species..

Coho salmon

The Coho salmon is a species of anadromous fish in the salmon family.

Coho is found in the North Pacific (Alaska, Kamchatka, Kuril Islands).

Coho salmon are also known as “silver salmon” or “silvers”..

Trout

Trout is the common name given to a number of species of freshwater fish belonging to the salmon family, Salmonidae.

Trout are usually found in cool, clear streams and lakes..

Fish farming

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture.

It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food.

A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species’ natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.

Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, catfish, tilapia, cod and others.

Basically, there are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical production and intensive aquaculture, in which the fishes are fed with external food supply..

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The toothed whales (systematic name Odontoceti) form a suborder of the cetaceans.As the name suggests, the suborder is characterized by having teeth..

Porpoise

The porpoises are small cetaceans of the family Phocoenidae; they are related to whales and dolphins.

They are distinct from dolphins, although the word “porpoise” has been used to refer to any small dolphin, especially by sailors and fishermen.

The most obvious visible difference between the two groups is that porpoises have spatulate (flattened) teeth distinct from the conical teeth of dolphins.

In addition, porpoises are relatively r-selected compared with dolphins: that is, they rear more young more quickly than dolphins. Porpoises, divided into six species, live in all oceans, mostly near the shore.

Probably best known is the Harbour Porpoise, which can be found across the Northern Hemisphere.

Porpoises tend to be smaller but stouter than dolphins.

They have small, rounded heads and blunt jaws instead of beaks.

Their teeth are spade-shaped, whereas dolphins have conical teeth.

In addition, a porpoise’s dorsal fin is generally triangular, rather than falcate (curved) like that of many dolphins and large whales..

Baleen whale

The baleen whales, also called whalebone whales or great whales, form a suborder of the order cetacea.

The distinguishing feature between this suborder and the toothed whales is that baleen whales have baleen plates instead of teeth in the upper jaw, which enables them to filter food from water..

Bowhead Whale

The Bowhead Whale, also known as Greenland Right Whale or Arctic Whale, is a marine mammal of the order Cetacea.

Bowhead Whales are the only baleen whales that spend their entire lives in and around Arctic waters..

Evolution of cetaceans

The cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) are descendants of land-living mammals, and remnants of their terrestrial origins can be found in the fact that they must breathe air from the surface; in the bones of their fins, which look like huge, jointed hands; and in the vertical movement of their spines, characteristic more of a running mammal than of the horizontal movement of fish.

The question of how land animals evolved into ocean-going behemoths has been a mystery for a long time, owing to gaps in the fossil record.

However, recent discoveries in Pakistan have managed to solve many of these mysteries, and it is now possible to see several stages in the transition of the cetaceans from land to sea.

The most remarkable of the recent discoveries in Pakistan has been Ambulocetus, which looked like a three-metre long mammalian crocodile.

Ambulocetus was clearly amphibious, as its back legs are better adapted for swimming than for walking on land, and it probably swam by undulating its back vertically, as otters, seals and whales do..

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A dog breed is a group of dogs that have very similar or nearly identical characteristics of appearance or behavior or, usually, both, primarily because they come from a select set of ancestors who had the same characteristics.Dogs have been selectively bred for specific characteristics for thousands of years..

Dog breeding

Dog breeding is the vocation of mating carefully selected specimens of the same breed to reproduce specific, consistently replicable qualities and characteristics. The skilled breeder has at least general knowledge of genetics and health, and in-depth knowledge of the breed standard and conformation points of his chosen breed..

Companion dog

Companion dog usually describes a dog that does not work, providing only companionship as a pet, rather than usefulness by doing specific tasks.

Many of the toy dog breeds are used only for the pleasure of their company, not as workers, but any dog can be a companion dog, and many working types such as retrievers are enjoyed in North America primarily for their friendly nature as a family pet..

Hypoallergenic dog breeds

Hypoallergenic dog breeds are those touted as being hypoallergenic; that is, provoking fewer allergic reactions in allergy sufferers.

These breeds usually shed less dander and hair and are, therefore, considered hypoallergenic.

However, even hairless dogs can produce enough dander to affect a highly allergic person..

Toy dog

A toy dog is a very small dog kept as a pet, as compared to a very small working dog, although both pet and working dogs can be very small.

When an all-breed association or kennel club divides dog breeds into groups for purposes of competition, the Toy Group contains most of the smallest dog breeds in the club’s registry.

The terms “teacup” or (”tea cup”) and “tiny toy,” have increasingly come to be used to describe adult dogs that are very small..

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Dairy cattle, generally of the species Bos taurus, are domesticated animals bred to produce large quantities of milk.
Dairy cattle may be found in herds on farms where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect milk from them.

Dairy product

Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk.

A production plant for such processing is called a dairy.

Raw milk for processing generally comes from cows, but occasionally from other mammals such as goats, sheep, water buffalo, yaks, or horses..

Saturated fat

Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids.

Diets high in saturated fat correlate in some studies with an increased incidence of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease..

Meat analogue

A meat analogue (Also called meat substitute or mock meat) is a food product that approximates the aesthetic qualities and/or chemical characteristics of certain types of meat.

Some meat analogues rely on one or more types of flavouring.

The market for meatless foods includes health-conscious non-vegetarians, lactose-intolerant people, persons following rules of Kashrut, or to address ethical and nutritional issues for vegetarians and vegans..

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Cat intelligence is the considered capacity of learning, thinking, and problem solving ability possessed by the domestic cat.
Cats learn by trial and error, observation and imitation. Cat learning abilities are aided by a good memory.Because of their sensitive sense of smell, cats prefer going outside to urinate and defecate.

Kittens need no training to use a litter box and cover up their waste; once they understand where the litter box is, they will seek it out from then on.

Cats can be trained to make use of a toilet..

Hypoallergenic

Hypoallergenic is the characteristic of provoking fewer allergic reactions in allergy sufferers.

Hypoallergenic means to have a decreased tendency to cause allergies; hypo means less, not none.

Hypoallergenic pets still produce allergens, but because of their coat type or absence of fur, typically produce less than others of the same species.

People with severe allergies and asthma might still be affected by a hypoallergenic pet..

Wild Cat

The wild cat (Felis silvestris), sometimes “wildcat” or “wild-cat” especially when distinguishing from other wild species of felines, is a small predator native to Europe, the western part of Asia, and Africa.

It is a hunter of small mammals, birds, and other creatures of a similar size.

There are several subspecies which occur in different world regions, including also the ubiquitous domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus), which has been introduced to every habitable continent and most of the world’s larger islands, and has become feral in many of those environments. In its native environment, the wild cat is adaptable to a variety of habitat types: savanna, open forest, and steppe.

Although domesticated breeds show a great variety of shapes and colours, wild individuals are medium-brown with black stripes, between 50 and 80 cm (20-32 inches) in length, and weigh between 3 and 6 kilograms (6–13 pounds).

The African subspecies tends to be a little smaller and a lighter brown in colour. Wild cats are extremely timid.

They avoid coming too close to human settlements.

They live solitarily..

Therapy dog

Therapy Dog refers to a dog trained to provide affection and comfort to people in hospitals, retirement homes, nursing homes, mental institutions, schools, and stressful situations such as disaster areas.

The concept of a therapy dog is often attributed to Elaine Smith, an American who worked as a registered nurse for a time in England.

Smith noticed how well patients responded to visits by a certain chaplain and his canine companion, a golden retriever.

Upon returning to the United States in 1976, Smith started a program for training dogs to visit institutions.

Over the years health care professionals have noticed the therapeutic effect of animal companionship, such as relieving stress, lowering blood pressure, and raising spirits, and the demand for therapy dogs continues to grow.

In recent years, therapy dogs have been enlisted to help children overcome speech and emotional disorders.

The concept has widened to include other species, specifically therapy cats, therapy rabbits, and therapy birds..

Cat flea

The Cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is one of the most abundant and widespread fleas in the world.

The cat flea’s primary host is the domestic cat, but this is also the primary flea infesting dogs in most of the world.

The cat flea can also maintain its life cycle on other carnivores and on the Virginia opossum.

Rabbits, rodents, ruminants and humans can be infested or bitten, but a population of cat fleas cannot be sustained by these aberrant hosts.

Cat fleas can transmit other parasites and infections to dogs and cats and also to humans.

The most prominent of these are Bartonella, the tapeworm Dipylidium caninum, and murine typhus..

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Birds are bipedal, warm-blooded, oviparous vertebrates characterized primarily by feathers, forelimbs modified as wings, and hollow bones.Birds range in size from the tiny hummingbirds to the huge Ostrich and Emu..

Vertebrate

Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata (within the phylum Chordata), specifically, those chordates with backbones or spinal columns.

About 57,739 species of vertebrates have been described.

Vertebrates started to evolve about 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion, which is part of the Cambrian period.

Their name derives from the bones of the spinal column (or vertebral column), the vertebrae.

Vertebrata is the largest subphylum of chordates, and contains many familiar groups of large land animals.

Fish (including lampreys, but traditionally not hagfish, though this is now disputed), amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (including humans) are vertebrates.

Characteristics of the subphylum are a muscular system that mostly consists of paired masses, as well as a central nervous system which is partly located inside the backbone (if one is present).

Usually, the defining characteristic of a vertebrate is considered the backbone or spinal cord, a brain case, and an internal skeleton, but the latter do not hold true for lampreys, and the former is arguably present in some other chordates.

Rather, all vertebrates are most easily distinguished from all other chordates by having an unequivocal head, that is, sensory organs – especially eyes are concentrated at the fore end of the body and there is pronounced cephalization..

Whooping Crane

The Whooping Craneis a very large crane.

It is the tallest North American bird. Adults are white; they have a red crown and a long, dark, pointed bill.

They have long dark legs which trail behind in flight and a long neck that is kept straight in flight.

Black wing tips can be seen in flight.

Immature birds are pale brown.

The Whooping Crane is endangered mainly as a result of habitat loss..

Great albatross

The great albatrosses are seabirds in the genus Diomedea in the albatross family.

Great albatrosses are the largest of the albatrosses and are amongst the largest of flying birds..

Emu

The Emu is the largest bird native to Australia and, after the Ostrich, the second-largest bird that survives today.

Like all birds in the Ratite group, it is flightless, although unlike some it does have tiny wings hidden under the feathers..

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The hominids are the members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes), which includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.The exact criteria for membership in the Homininae are not clear, but the subfamily generally includes those species which share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond the family or band.

The theory of mind including such faculties as mental state attribution, empathy and even empathetic deception is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids.

Humans acquire this capacity at about four and a half years of age, whereas it has neither been proven nor disproven that gorillas and chimpanzees develop a theory of mind.

This is also the case for some new world monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys..

Homo (genus)

Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives.

The genus is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2.5 million years old.

All species except Homo sapiens are extinct.

Homo neanderthalensis, traditionally considered the last surviving relative, died out 30,000 years ago while recent evidence suggests that Homo floresiensis lived as recently as 12,000 years ago..

Orangutan

Orangutans (also spelled orang utan, orang-utan, sometimes incorrectly orangutang) are two species of great apes with long arms and reddish, sometimes brown, hair.

Orangutans are highly endangered in the wild..

Primate

A primate is any member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains all the species commonly related to the lemurs, monkeys, and apes, with the latter category including humans.

Primates are found all over the world.

Non-human primates occur mostly in Central and South America, Africa, and southern Asia.

A few species exist as far north in the Americas as southern Mexico, and as far north in Asia as northern Japan.

The Primates order is divided informally into three main groupings: prosimians, monkeys of the New World, and monkeys and apes of the Old World.

All primates have five fingers (pentadactyly), a generalized dental pattern, and a primitive (unspecialized) body plan.

Another distinguishing feature of primates is fingernails.

Opposing thumbs are also a characteristic primate feature, but are not limited to this order; opossums, for example, also have opposing thumbs..

Monkey

A monkey is any member of two of the three groupings of simian primates.

These two groupings are the New World and Old World monkeys of which together there are nearly 200 species.

A group of monkeys may be referred to as a mission of monkeys or a tribe of monkeys..

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A carnivore is an animal that eats a diet consisting mainly of meat, whether it comes from live animals or dead ones (scavenging).Some animals are considered carnivores even if their diets contain very little meat (e.g., predatory arthropods such as spiders or mantids that may rarely consume small vertebrate prey).

Animals that subsist on a diet consisting only of meat are referred to as obligate carnivores. The word also refers to the mammals of the Order Carnivora, many (but not all) of which fit the first definition.

Bears are an example of members of Carnivora that are not true carnivores.

Carnivores that eat insects primarily or exclusively are called insectivores, while those that eat fish primarily or exclusively are called piscivores. There are also several species of carnivorous plants, though most are primarily insectivorous..

Omnivore

An omnivore is an animal that eats both plants and meat.

Omnivores lack the specialist behaviour of carnivores and herbivores, searching widely for food sources, and are thus better able to withstand changes within their ecological niche..

Herbivore

A herbivore is often defined as any organism that eats only plants.

By that definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, about 1% of flowering plants and some protists can be considered herbivores.

Many people restrict the term herbivore to animals.

Fungi, bacteria and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens.

Microbes that feed on dead plants are saprotrophs.

Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants.

In zoology, an herbivore is an animal that is adapted to eat primarily plant matter (rather than meat).

Although such animals are sometimes referred to as being vegetarian, this term is more properly reserved for humans who choose not to eat meat as opposed to animals that are unable to make such choices..

American Mink

The American Mink, Mustela vison, is a North American member of the Mustelidae family found in Alaska, Canada and most of the United States.

They are also raised in fur farms for their lustrous fur, which is highly esteemed.

Breeders have developed a range of colors from deep black to white. Some have established themselves in the wild in Newfoundland, Europe and South America after escaping from fur farms.

In Europe, tens of thousand were intentionally introduced by the Soviet Union over a period of several decades, to provide a new game animal for trappers, with disastrous results. In recent years, animal rights activists have also released several thousands in their attacks on fur farms.

Most of these released captive mink quickly died in the wild, preyed on by dogs or run over by cars. The larger American male will mate with European Mink females earlier in the spring than the males of the same species; the offspring are not born, but the females do not then breed again that season.

This has contributed to the decline of the European species.

American Mink have also been implicated in the decline of the Water Vole in the United Kingdom and linked to the decline of water fowl across their range in Europe.

They are now considered vermin in much of Europe and are hunted for the purpose of wildlife management. Their long slim body is covered in glossy, thick dark brown or black fur with a white patch under the chin.

They have short legs with partially webbed feet, which make them excellent swimmers. They can be found in wooded areas and fields near streams and lakes.

They dig burrows in river banks or take over dens abandoned by other animals. They feed on small mammals, fish, crayfish, frogs and other amphibians, also sometimes eating birds, insects and earthworms.

These animals are mainly active at night and do not hibernate.

Their predators include coyotes, the Great Horned Owl, red foxes and wolves.

They are also trapped for their fur.

Their numbers have been reduced due to loss of habitat and the effects of pollution on their aquatic food supply. They are usually solitary animals.

Mating occurs during winter; males and females may have more than one partner.

Females give birth to 3 or 4 young during early spring..

Trophic level

In ecology, the trophic level is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain – what it eats, and what eats it.

Wildlife biologists look at a natural “economy of energy” that ultimately rests upon solar energy.

When they look at an ecosystem there is almost always some foundation species that directly harvests energy from the sun, for example, grass (however in deep sea hydrothermal vents chemosynthetic archaea form the base of the food chain).

Next are herbivores (primary consumers) that eat the grass, such as the rabbit.

Next are carnivores (secondary consumers) that eat the rabbit, such as a bobcat.

There can be several intermediate links, which means that there can be another layer of predators on top, such as mountain lions, which sometimes eat bobcats.

Since each layer of this system relates to the one below it by absorbing a fraction of the energy it consumed, each one can be understood as resting on the one below – which is called a lower trophic level.

Keep in mind that trophic relationships are rarely this simple.

Very often they are more of a “web” than a “chain.” For example, the mountain lion may eat the bobcat, but it also eats rabbits.

The trophic categorization of the mountain lion exists on two levels, possibly more..

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Soil is material capable of supporting plant life.Soil forms through a variety of soil formation processes, and includes weathered rock “parent material” combined with dead and living organic matter and air.Soils can be divided into two general layers: topsoil, the topmost layer, where most plant roots, microorganisms, and other animal life are located, and subsoil, which is deeper and often more dense and contains less organic matter..

Humus

Humus is a complex organic substance resulting from the breakdown of plant material in a process called humification.

This process can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost.

Humus is extremely important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense..

Infiltration (hydrology)

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.

Infiltration is governed by two forces, gravity, and capillary action.

While smaller pores offer greater resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through capillary action in addition to and even against the force of gravity. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which a particular soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation.

It is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour.

The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated.

If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier.

It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil..

Soil pH

Soil pH is an indication of the alkalinity or acidity of soil.

It is based on the measurement of pH, which is based in turn on the activity of hydrogen ions (H+) in a water or salt solution..

Soil science

Soil science deals with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils per se; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. Sometimes terms which refer to branches of soil science, such as pedology (formation, chemistry, morphology and classification of soil) and edaphology (influence of soil on organisms, especially plants), are used as if synonymous with soil science.

The diversity of names associated with this discipline is related to the various associations concerned.

Indeed, engineers, agronomists, chemists, geologists, geographers, biologists, microbiologists, sylviculturists, sanitarians, archaeologists, and specialists in regional planning, all contribute to further knowledge of soils and the advancement of the soil sciences..

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Seed predation includes any process inflicted on a plant’s seeds by an animal that results in the inviability of the seed.
Generally this refers to the consumption and digestion of the seed, but also includes the parasitization of seeds by insect larvae.The high nutrient content of seeds makes them a valuable food source for many mammals, birds and insects.

Seed predation is an important ecological process that can affect the reproductive success of individual plants, the dynamics of plant populations, and the evolution of defensive dispersal mechanisms and plant morphological traits.

Before dispersal, seeds are clustered in space and time, occurring in localised areas (i.e.

on the plant) for relatively short periods of time.

Additionally the presence of seeds on a plant may be advertised, intentionally or unintentionally, by the presence of flowers or fruits.

Animals preying on undispersed seeds are typically small insects, such as flies, beetles, and moth larvae, with limited mobility.

These predators are often specialist feeders, restricted to one or a few plant species.

However, larger generalist species, such as birds and mammals, may also eat undispersed seed..

Seedless Fruit

In botany and horticulture, parthenocarpy (literally meaning virgin fruit) is the natural or artificially induced production of fruit without fertilization of ovules.

The fruit is therefore seedless.

Parthenocarpy occasionally occurs as a mutation in nature, but it is usually considered a defect, as the plant can no longer sexually reproduce, but may propagate by asexual means.

However, parthenocarpy of some fruits on a plant may be of value.

Seedlessness is a very desirable trait in edible fruit with hard seeds such as pineapple, banana, orange and grapefruit.

Parthenocarpy is also desirable in fruit crops that may be difficult to pollinate or fertilize, such as tomato and summer squash.

In dioecious species, such as persimmon, parthenocarpy increases fruit production because staminate trees do not need to be planted to provide pollen.

Parthencarpy is undesirable in nut crops, such as pistachio, where the seed is the edible part..

Spore

In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersion and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions.

Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and some protozoans. Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporophyte.

Once conditions are favorable, the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which will eventually go on to produce gametes.

Two gametes fuse to create a new sporophyte.

This cycle is known as alternation of generations.

Haploid spores produced by mitosis (known as mitospores) are used by many fungi for asexual reproduction..

Herbivore

A herbivore is often defined as any organism that eats only plants.

By that definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, about 1% of flowering plants and some protists can be considered herbivores.

Many people restrict the term herbivore to animals.

Fungi, bacteria and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens.

Microbes that feed on dead plants are saprotrophs.

Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants.

In zoology, an herbivore is an animal that is adapted to eat primarily plant matter (rather than meat).

Although such animals are sometimes referred to as being vegetarian, this term is more properly reserved for humans who choose not to eat meat as opposed to animals that are unable to make such choices..

Seedbank

Seedbanks store seeds as a source for planting in case seed reserves elsewhere should be destroyed.

The seeds stored may be various in nature, such as those of food crops or those of rare species, to protect biodiversity.

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Traditionally in medicine, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another.Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.This sense of “biological vector” is the primary one in epidemiology and in common speech. In gene therapy, a virus itself may serve as a vector, if it has been re-engineered and is used to deliver a gene to its target cell.

A “vector” in this sense is a vehicle for delivering genetic material such as DNA to a cell..

Pest (animal)

A pest is an animal which has characteristics which people regard as injurious or unwanted.

An example of serious pests are those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, or mosquitoes which vector malaria..

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary diseases in which a defective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one.

Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success.

Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a genetically-mediated therapy and is often considered together with other methods.

In most gene therapy studies, a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to replace an “abnormal,” disease-causing gene.

A carrier called a vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells.

Currently, the most common type of vectors are viruses that have been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA.

Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner.

Scientists have tried to harness this ability by manipulating the viral genome to remove disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic ones. Target cells such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the vector.

The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell.

The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal state. In theory it is possible to transform either somatic cells (most cells of the body) or cells of the germline (such as sperm cells, ova, and their stem cell precursors).

All gene therapy to date on humans has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains controversial.

For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the chromosomes by genetic recombination. Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ex vivo, which means exterior (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and in vivo, which means interior (where genes are changed in cells still in the body).

Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most DNA constructs recombination has a very low probability..

Genetically modified organism

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology.

Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule..

Phytopathology

Phytopathology or plant pathology is the science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.

It covers all infectious agents that attack plants and abiotic disorders, but does not include herbivory by insects, mammals, etc.

Approximately ten percent of food production is lost to disease worldwide..

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Organic gardening is a form of gardening that uses substantial diversity in pest control to reduce the use of pesticides and tries to provide as much fertility with local sources of nutrients rather than purchased fertilizers..

Humus

Humus is a complex organic substance resulting from the breakdown of plant material in a process called humification.

This process can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost.

Humus is extremely important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense..

Square foot gardening

Square Foot Gardening is a type of intensive gardening based on the idea that the wide rows in conventional home gardening are a waste of time and space, and that more quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less effort..

Mulch

In agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil, primarily to modify the effects of the local climate.

A wide variety of natural and synthetic materials are used..

Fertilizer

Fertilizers or fertilisers are compounds given to plants with the intention of promoting growth; they are usually applied either via the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar spraying, for uptake through leaves.

Fertilizers can be organic (composed of organic matter, i.e.

carbon based), or inorganic (containing simple, inorganic chemicals)..

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A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology.
Earth & Climate

Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule..

Transgenic plants

Transgenic plants are plants that have been genetically engineered, a breeding approach that uses recombinant DNA techniques to create plants with new characteristics.They are identified as a class of genetically modified organism (GMO)..

Biopharmaceutical

Biopharmaceuticals are medical drugs produced using biotechnology.

They are proteins (including antibodies), nucleic acids (DNA, RNA or antisense oligonucleotides) used for therapeutic or in vivo diagnostic purposes, and are produced by means other than direct extraction from a native (non-engineered) biological source.

The first such substance approved for therapeutic use was recombinant human insulin.

The large majority of biopharmaceutical products are pharmaceuticals that are derived from life forms.

A potentially controversial method of producing biopharmaceuticals involves transgenic organisms, particularly plants and animals that have been genetically modified to produce drugs..

Chromosomal crossover

Homologous recombination is the process by which two chromosomes, paired up during prophase 1 of meiosis, exchange some distal portion of their DNA.

Crossover occurs when two chromosomes, normally two homologous instances of the same chromosome, break and then reconnect but to the different end piece.

If they break at the same place or locus in the sequence of base pairs, the result is an exchange of genes, called genetic recombination.

This outcome is the normal way for crossover to occur.

If they break at slightly different loci, the result can be a duplication of genes on one chromosome and a deletion of these on the other.

This is known as an unequal crossover.

If chromosomes break on both sides of the same centromere and rejoin to exclude the centromere, the result can be one chromosome being lost during cell division..

Trait (biology)

In biology, a trait or character is a feature of an organism.

The term phenotype is sometimes used as a synonym for trait in common use, but strictly speaking, does not indicate the trait, but the state of that trait (e.g., the trait eye color has the phenotypes blue, brown and hazel).

A trait may be any single feature or quantifiable measurement of an organism.

However, the most useful traits for genetic analysis are present in different forms in different individuals. A visible trait is the final product of many molecular and biochemical processes.

In most cases, information starts with DNA traveling to RNA and finally to protein (ultimately affecting organism structure and function).

This information flow may also be followed through the cell as it travels from the DNA in the nucleus, to the Cytoplasm, to the Ribosomes and the Endoplasmic Reticulum, and finally to the Golgi Apparatus, which may package the final products for export outside the cell. Cell products are released into the tissue, and organs of an organism, to finally affect the physiology in a way that produces a trait..

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Vegetable is a culinary term.Its definition has no scientific value and is somewhat arbitrary and subjective.
All parts of herbaceous plants eaten as food by humans, whole or in part, are generally considered vegetables.
Mushrooms, though belonging to the biological kingdom, fungi, are also commonly considered vegetables.
Since “vegetable” is not a botanical term, there is no contradiction in referring to a plant part as a fruit while also being considered a vegetable.

Given this general rule of thumb, vegetables can include leaves (lettuce), stems (asparagus), roots (carrots), flowers (broccoli), bulbs (garlic), seeds (peas and beans) and of course the botanical fruits like cucumbers, squash, pumpkins, and capsicums.

Vegetables contain water soluble vitamins like vitamin B and vitamin C, fat-soluble vitamins including vitamin A and vitamin D, and also contain carbohydrates and minerals..

Food groups

The food groups are part of a method of classification for the various foods that humans consume in their everyday lives, based on the nutritional properties of these types of foods and their location in a hierarchy of nutrition.

Eating certain amounts and proportions of foods from the different categories is recommended by most guides to healthy eating as one of the most important ways to achieve a healthy lifestyle through diet.

Different food guides vary in the number of categories used to divide types of food, but the majority of them include the following classifications: grain products; vegetables; fruits; dairy products; meat and alternatives; fats, oils and sugars..

Square foot gardening

Square Foot Gardening is a type of intensive gardening based on the idea that the wide rows in conventional home gardening are a waste of time and space, and that more quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less effort..

Leaf vegetable

Leaf vegetables, also called potherbs, greens, or leafy greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots.

Although they come from a very wide variety of plants, most share a great deal with other leaf vegetables in nutrition and cooking methods. Nearly one thousand species of plants with edible leaves are known.

Leaf vegetables most often come from short-lived herbaceous plants such as lettuce and spinach.

Woody plants whose leaves can be eaten as leaf vegetables include Adansonia, Aralia, Moringa, Morus, and Toona species. The leaves of many fodder crops are also edible by humans, but usually only eaten under famine conditions.

Examples include alfalfa, clover, and most grasses, including wheat and barley.

These plants are often much more prolific than more traditional leaf vegetables, but exploitation of their rich nutrition is difficult, primarily because of their high fiber content.

This obstacle can be overcome by further processing such as drying and grinding into powder or pulping and pressing for juice.

Leaf vegetables are typically low in calories, low in fat, high in protein per calorie, high in dietary fiber, high in iron and calcium, and very high in phytochemicals such as vitamin C, vitamin A, lutein and folic acid..

Herb

A herb is a plant grown for culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual value.

The green, leafy part of the plant is typically used.

General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs.

A medicinal herb may be a shrub or other woody plant, whereas a culinary herb is a non-woody plant.

By contrast, spices are the seeds, berries, bark, root, fruit, or other parts of the plant, even leaves in some cases; although any of these, as well as any edible fruits or vegetables, may be considered “herbs” in medicinal or spiritual use..

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A drought or an extreme dry periodic climate is an extended period where water availability falls below the statistical requirements for a region.
Drought is not a purely physical phenomenon, but rather an interplay between natural water availability and human demands for water supply..
Phytopathology
Phytopathology or plant pathology is the science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.
It covers all infectious agents that attack plants and abiotic disorders, but does not include herbivory by insects, mammals, etc.
Approximately ten percent of food production is lost to disease worldwide..
Bushfire
A bushfire is a wildfire that occurs in the bush (collective term for forest, scrub, woodland or grassland of Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia).
In southeast Australia, bushfires tend to be most common and most severe during summer and autumn, in drought years, and particularly in El Nino years.
In the north of Australia, bushfires usually occur during winter (the dry season), and fire severity tends to be more associated with seasonal growth patterns.
In the southwest, similarly, bushfires occur in the summer dry season and severity is usually related to seasonal growth.
Fire frequency in the north is difficult to assess, as the vast majority of fires are deliberately started by humans.
Plants have evolved a variety of strategies to survive fires, (possessing reserve shoots that sprout after a fire, or developing fire-resistant or fire-triggered seeds) or even encourage fire (eucalypts contain flammable oils in the leaves) as a way to eliminate competition from less fire-tolerant species.
It is also a method of reproduction for eucalypts as their seed pods explode in the intense heat.
Many native animals are also adept at surviving bushfires..
Organic lawn management
Organic lawn management is the practice of establishing and caring for a garden lawn without the use of chemical inputs such as pesticides or artificial fertilisers.
The garden lawn is a place where we can walk, play and relax, and is especially important for children, providing them with space to run around and enjoy themselves..
Groundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of geologic formations.
A formation of rock/soil is called an aquifer when it can yield a useable quantity of water.
The depth at which soil pore spaces become saturated with water is called the water table..

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Avian flu (also “bird flu”, “avian influenza”, “bird influenza”), means “flu from viruses adapted to birds”, but is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to both other flu subsets (such as H5N1 flu) or the viruses that cause them (such as H5N1). “Bird flu” is a phrase similar to “Pig flu”, “Dog flu”, “Horse flu”, or “Human flu” in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of flu viruses such that the strain in question has adapted to the host.
“Avian flu” differs in being named after an entire vertebrate class with 8,800–10,200 species.
All known avian flu viruses belong to the species of virus called Influenza A virus.
All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of Influenza A virus are adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the Influenza A virus (note that the “A” does not stand for “avian”)..
Flu vaccine
The flu vaccine is a vaccine to protect against the highly variable influenza virus.
The annually updated trivalent flu vaccine for the 2005-2006 season consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.
Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become dominant.
Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation usually only works for about a year..
Pandemic
A pandemic is an epidemic (an outbreak of an infectious disease) that spreads worldwide, or at least across a large region.
There have been a number of significant pandemics in human history, generally zoonoses that came about with domestication of animals – such as influenza and tuberculosis.
Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus and Bolivian hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases with the theoretical potential to become pandemics.
Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector.
Genetic mutations could occur at which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm, thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.
In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains.
It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans.
Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the Spanish Flu, or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian Flu and the Hong Kong Flu..

Spanish flu
The Spanish Flu Pandemic, also known as La Grippe Espagnole, or La Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 [1].
It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in human history.
It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2..
Influenza pandemic
An influenza pandemic is a large scale epidemic of the influenza virus, such as the 1918 Spanish flu.
The World Health Organization (WHO) warns that there is a substantial risk of an influenza pandemic within the next few years.
One of the strongest candidates is the A(H5N1) subtype of avian influenza..

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Yeasts constitute a group of single-celled (unicellular) fungi, a few species of which are commonly used to leaven bread, ferment alcoholic beverages, and even drive experimental fuel cells.
Most yeasts belong to the division Ascomycota.
A few yeasts, such as Candida albicans, can cause infection in humans..
Fungus
A fungus (plural fungi) is a eukaryotic organism that digests its food externally and absorbs the nutrient molecules into its cells.
Fungi are very important economically: yeasts are responsible for fermentation of beer and bread, and mushroom farming is a large industry in many countries.
Fungi are the primary decomposers of dead plant and animal matter in many ecosystems, and are commonly seen on old bread as mold..
Soil life
Soil life is a collective term for all the organisms living within the soil.
In a balanced soil, plants grow in an active and vibrant environment.
Without the activities of soil organisms, dead matter would accumulate and litter the soil surface, and there would be no food for plants..

Sac fungi
The Ascomycota,formerly known as the Ascomycetae, or Ascomycetes, are a Division of Fungi, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi, which produce spores in a distinctive type of microscopic sporangium called an ascus.
Examples of sac fungi are yeasts, morels, truffles, and Penicillium.
The majority of plant-pathogenic fungi belong to this group, or the Deuteromycota.
Species of ascomycetes are also popular in the laboratory.
Sordaria fimicola, Neurospora crassa and several species of yeasts are used in many genetics and cell biology experiments..
Biological life cycle
A life cycle is a period involving one generation of an organism through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction.
In regard to its ploidy, there are three types of cycles; haplontic life cycle, diplontic life cycle, diplobiontic life cycle.
These three types of cycles feature alternating haploid and diploid phases (n and 2n).
The haploid organism becomes diploid through fertilization, which joins of gametes.
This results in a zygote which then germinates.
To return to a haploid stage, meiosis must occur.
The cycles differ in the product of meiosis, and whether mitosis (growth) occurs.
Zygotic and gametic meioses have one mitotic stage and form: during the n phase in zygotic meiosis and during the 2n phase in gametic meiosis.
Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively term haplobiontic (single mitosis per phase).
Sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has two mitosis events (diplobiontic): one in each phase..

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Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: environmental stewardship, farm profitability, and prosperous farming communities.
Sustainable agriculture refers to the ability of a farm to produce perpetually..

Organic farming methods
Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge and modern technology with traditional farming practices based on thousands of years of agriculture.
In general, organic methods rely on naturally occurring biological processes, which often take place over extended periods of time, and a holistic approach.
Crop diversity is a distinctive characteristic of organic farming..
Agroecology
Agroecology is the science of applying ecological concepts and principles to the design, development, and management of sustainable agricultural systems. Agroecology is the science of sustainable agriculture; the methods of agroecology have as their goal achieving sustainability of agricultural systems balanced in all spheres.
This includes the socio-economic and the ecological or environmental. While farming methods vary, traditional manipulated “agroecosystems” generally differ from natural ecosystems in six ways: maintenance at an early successional state, monoculture, crops generally planted in rows, simplification of biodiversity, plough which exposes soil to erosion, use of genetically modified organisms and artificially selected crops meanwhile agroecology tends to minimize the human impact.
The agroecologist views any farming system primarily with an ecologist’s eye; that is, it is not firstly economic (created for a commodity and profit), nor industrial (modeled after a factory)..
Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the study of crops and the soils in which they grow.
Agronomists work to develop methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the production of food and fiber crops.
They conduct research in crop rotation, irrigation and drainage, plant breeding, soil classification, soil fertility, weed control, and other areas..
Slash and burn
Slash and burn (a specific practice that may be part of shifting cultivation or swidden-fallow agriculture) is an agricultural procedure widely used in forested areas.
Although it was practised historically in temperate regions, where it was termed assarting, it is most widely associated with tropical agriculture today.
Slash and burn is a specific functional element of certain farming practices, often shifting cultivation systems.
In some cases such as parts of Madagascar, slash and burn may have no cyclical aspects (e.g some slash and burn activities can render soils incapable of further yields for generations), or may be practiced on its own as a single cycle farming activity with no follow on cropping cycle.
Shifting cultivation normally implies the existence of a cropping cycle component, whereas slash-and-burn actions may or may not be followed by cropping.
Slash-and-burn agriculture is usually labeled as ecologically destructive, but it may be workable when practiced by small populations in large forests, where fields have sufficient time to recover before again being slashed, burned, and cultivated.
Tropical forests are habitats for extremely biologically diverse ecosystems, typically containing large numbers of endemic and endangered species which can be threatened by slash-and-burn actions..

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